When the barbarian conquerors overran the provinces of the Roman Empire, they found the Church a united and well-organized body which looked to the Bishop of Rome for leadership. On the one hand, the hierarchy and the ritual of the Church commanded their respect. On the other hand, its organization and influence provided a useful asset in the rule of their new territories. The bishops became magistrates and temporal lords. They were useful counselors, for what learning there was was found with them. Thus, during the Dark Ages, the power and wealth of the clergy grew apace, nor was it always honestly acquired. It is recorded that even in the sixth century bishops were guilty of appropriating church endowments to their own use and of committing various acts of injustice and oppression. Simony was rampant and perjury common among the clergy, and their morals are said to have been very low in the period following the barbarian invasions. To the shame of the Church, a secular ruler, Charlemagne, had to take measures to reform the worst of these abuses. The seventh century marked the low point of ignorance. At this period, however, learning was kept alive in Britain and Ireland, where a purer Christian light still shone. It has always been so: The true knowledge of God has ever been allied with a proper cultivation of the mind, while the times when the light of God has been withheld have been times of ignorance and vice. But although the Church had sunk so low, there were still in it pious men and women, and a little light still glimmered amid the gloom — a little of the warmth of Christian love glowed and shed its beams on a forlorn world. The most hateful features of heathendom were modified, if not banished. Slavery was one of the evils which gradually gave way to Christian influences. From time to time the voices of Councils were raised to rebuke the abuses among the clergy. The relief of the poor and the care of the sick was a feature which had been associated with the Church since earliest times. If we look at the Church as a beneficiary of the world, there is something to be said for her, but her heavenly light had departed, except that here and there individuals and groups were to be found in whom the Spirit of God was manifesting the features of Christ.
One of the worst features of this period was the prevalence of superstition and idolatry. Relics of the apostles and martyrs abounded and there was great competition to secure these spurious objects of veneration. Pilgrimages to the tombs of saints were encouraged, their images worshipped, and prayers made to them. All this was encouraged by men who should have known better.
The doctrine of purgatory was propagated in this period, and Gregory the Great is credited with having furthered this unscriptural notion. While Rome was not yet acknowledged as head of the Western Church, the claim that its bishop inherited the authority of St. Peter — that the “keys” committed to that Apostle had been passed down — was already strongly asserted early in the seventh century. Towards the end of the eighth century, there appeared what has been described as “the two most celebrated monuments of human imposture and credulity” — the False Decretals and the “Donation of Constantine.” The former consisted of forged epistles and decrees, attributed to earlier bishops and emperors of Rome, and designed to support by fraudulent evidence the supremacy of Rome; the latter proclaimed that Constantine, on removing his seat of government to Constantinople, delegated to the successor of St. Peter and the Vicar of Christ unlimited authority over churches and nations and kings. Despite these bold claims, Charlemagne himself maintained his own regal authority but did not scruple to use the Pope as a useful ally. In later years these impudent frauds helped to build up the growing prestige of the popes of Rome.
In the East the history of the Church assumed a different pattern. The Emperor Justinian (527), zealous for external religion, built sumptuous churches, endowed monasteries and strove to bring all those within his power to the nominal acceptance of Christianity. Although avaricious and superstitious himself, he was the virtual ruler of the Church as well as the state. But forced conversions, accompanied often by cruelty, only hindered the cause of true Christianity, which declined to a very low level. Idolatry and superstition, with mere outward forms, took the place of godliness. But the East was, before long, largely submerged by the Muhammadan invasion. In the parts still left to the eastern emperors, a violent controversy over images arose. Some of the emperors, particularly Leo III, strove to banish image worship. The effect in Greece was a rebellion, which, however, was quickly crushed. Pope Gregory II wrote an impudent letter to the Emperor (who at that time was still the acknowledged ruler of Italy) demanding that he “should cease to persecute images.” In 732, this pope, in a council, excommunicated all who should remove or speak contemptuously of images. He even sought the help of Charles Martel in order to throw off his allegiance to the Emperor, who was still titular head of the Roman Empire.
Some of the succeeding emperors continued the campaign in the East against idolatry, but finally, in 784, the Empress Irene restored image worship and sought the support of the reigning pope, Adrian, which he was only too ready to accord. It is hard to discover at this time any real light in the Eastern Church. Many true believers, such as the Paulicians, were outside the Church and were bitterly persecuted.
Having taken this brief look at the sad aspect of what professed to be the Church of Christ on earth, let us turn to the happier task of finding evidences of true Christianity during these three centuries. In spite of all the superstition and admixture of human notions, the simple truths of the gospel, the coming of the Saviour, His atoning death, the hope of life beyond the grave for those who believe — these truths were not entirely obliterated, and they were kept alive by the Spirit of God in many hearts. There was, moreover, an earnest desire with some that those tribes and nations still in heathen darkness should hear the story of the gospel. There were men in whose hearts the love of God burned and who were ready to give up the comforts of life or the peace of the monastery and take long and hazardous journeys to strange lands and live among barbarians risking — and sometimes meeting — death in order that their benighted fellows might receive the blessings of Christianity. No greater proof could be offered than this that the knowledge of the Saviour God was still enshrined in human hearts.
Christianity was in a comparatively flourishing state in Ireland in the sixth century, and the Christian schools in that country had a reputation for piety and learning which attracted students from other lands. Columba, a pupil of royal lineage in one of these schools, after having founded several monasteries in Ireland, went to Iona and began a fresh foundation there. A spiritual revival in his own soul seems to have occurred at this time, and from Iona evangelical light spread all over Scotland. One valuable service rendered by the monasteries under Columba’s care was the multiplication of copies of the gospels. When we consider how much depends on the possession of the Scriptures and how laborious was the task of preparing them by hand, this labor performed by the monks in the quietude of their cells was of inestimable value. Columba died in 597.
From the great monastery of Bangor in Ireland in 590, Columbanus commenced his great missionary work in Europe, preaching in eastern France, Bavaria, Switzerland and Italy. One of his disciples named Gall, who has given his name to the Swiss Canton of St. Gall, also labored in Switzerland and among the German tribes.
The outstanding figure in the Church at the close of the sixth century is Gregory I, Bishop of Rome. We do not call him pope because the papal system had hardly developed. Of noble origin and a man of wealth, he seems to have undergone a real conversion, and like many whose consciences were deeply affected in those days, he became a monk. Leaving the monastery, he took up ministerial office in Constantinople, but he felt the loss of the quiet retirement of the monastery and wrote at this time to Leander, afterwards Bishop of Seville:
“I found my soul convinced of the necessity of securing salvation, but I delayed too long entangled with the world. At length I threw myself into a monastery. Now, I thought, I had placed an insuperable bar between myself and the world. But again I am tossed on the tempestuous ocean and unless I may enjoy the communion of my brethren, I can find no solace to my soul.”
From youth he was sickly and suffered much all his life, but he labored diligently in spite of his afflictions. The fear of divine judgment was ever before him, but he appears to have trusted in the mercy of God. Although a devout student of Scripture, he seems to have overlooked the basic gospel truth of justification by faith. This was a defect of the times and explains much in the history of the Church during the Dark Ages. His lack in this respect is proved from his own words. A lady had written to inquire if he could by revelation assure her that her sins were forgiven. To this he replied “that certainty in this matter was not attainable; we must repent and mourn over our sins, and apply for pardon continually.”
He bore the onerous burdens of the office of Bishop of Rome with diligence and zeal but he deplored the time spent in secular affairs. He was upright and honorable in his dealings, and unbounded in his charity. He appears to have lived what he taught. “Weighty indeed,” he writes, “is the office of a pastor. He must be an example to the flock, and after this he must learn to keep himself humble. He must ever be intent on the ministry of the Word, remembering who hath said, ‘Occupy till I come’ (Luke 19:1313And he called his ten servants, and delivered them ten pounds, and said unto them, Occupy till I come. (Luke 19:13)). This then we truly execute when by life and doctrine we gain the souls of our neighbors. ... I tremble at my own infirmity. How can I sustain the last judgment seeing so very little fruit for my labors? Dearest brother, I implore your prayers for me.”
Pious, devoted and laborious as Gregory was, he helped to build much “wood, hay, stubble” (1 Cor. 3:1212Now if any man build upon this foundation gold, silver, precious stones, wood, hay, stubble; (1 Corinthians 3:12)) into the fabric of the Church. Five centuries had passed since the apostles, and their teaching, although enshrined in the Scriptures, had become encumbered with superstition, ceremonialism and idolatry. To this Gregory added his quota. He encouraged missionaries like Augustine to compromise with heathen feasts by christianizing them, he sanctioned the use of images while deprecating idolatry, and he asserted the power of the keys of St. Peter. He shared the abject addiction to sacred relics, regulated the prayers, and added pompous ceremonies to the services of the Church. Thus, while we may exempt him from the Babylonish character assumed by later occupants of the Roman See, in his days the foundations on which cunning and unprincipled men built up the papal system were well and truly laid.
The story of Gregory and the slaves from Britain whom he saw in the slave market is well-known. Observing their fair faces, he inquired as to their race, and being told they were Angli, he said, “In truth they have angelic countenances and it is a pity they should not be co-heirs with angels in heaven.” In due course he sent Augustine with about forty monks to Britain. Augustine, discouraged by the initial difficulties, was ready to abandon the task, but Gregory urged him to go. The results were fruitful, though the truth of the gospel was mingled with the idolatrous features that characterize the Church of that day.
Britain had had the light of the gospel from the earliest times, perhaps as early as the second century, but the Saxons, as is well-known, had driven the original inhabitants, among whom the light of Christianity still survived, into Wales and Cornwall, and Britain had again become a pagan land.
Some Christian influence already existed in Kent. The King’s wife, Bertha, daughter of the King of Paris, was a Christian and had a little church for her own use and a chaplain. Augustine therefore sought first an interview with Ethelbert, the King. He was favorably received and Queen Bertha’s church at Canterbury made available to him. The King embraced Christianity and many of his subjects followed his example. Augustine was made first bishop and established his headquarters at Canterbury, becoming the first archbishop, with authority to appoint others, as the number of converts grew and made it necessary.
It was Gregory’s intention that the native British Churches driven into the West should be brought into the Roman fold. Augustine, it seems, treated them in a rather superior way and gave offence. The Welsh Churches remained independent of Rome till the end of the twelfth century. An attempt later to establish relations with the Irish Church was also unsuccessful. The recognized leadership of Ethelbert south of the Humber favored the spread of Christianity in the other kingdoms of the Saxon heptarchy.
Edwin, King of Northumbria, sought the hand of the sister of Eadbald, King of Kent (successor of Ethelbert). At first her brother refused to allow her to marry an unbeliever, but he relented on the condition that she should be allowed full liberty of conscience. For her protection, she was accompanied by Paulinus, who was to watch over her spiritually. Paulinus was not content merely to fulfill this charge. He sought to win the King and people over to the faith. His efforts were blessed, and the King and many others believed and were baptized. Paulinus’s efforts extended south to Lincoln where further blessing followed. Thus God in His grace overruled what seemed to be a mŽsalliance, and during Edwin’s life the gospel prospered.
After six years Edwin was killed and his queen retired to Kent with Paulinus. Northumbria was overrun with paganism once again, but a further revival was granted by the arrival of a pious Irish missionary named Aidan who was invited over by Oswald (nephew of Edwin) who had regained the territory and was himself a Christian. Aidan settled in Lindisfarne (Holy Island), for long years a Christian citadel in those troublous days. Gradually the gospel spread throughout Saxon England, and its light has continued to shine in this highly favored land until this day.
Another Irish missionary, Kilian, went to Wurtzburg in Germany. The pagan governor was won over to accept the faith, but whether the work was real in his case seems to be in doubt. He was married to his brother’s wife, and Kilian having pointed out that this was contrary to Christianity, the woman concerned played the part of Herodias and secured his death. He was murdered together with his companions, but many had been converted. This was in 688. Later in the same century Willibrod and eleven other English missionaries went to Friesland. Their labors were crowned with success. Some of them went into Westphalia and the surrounding country. Willibrod continued his work for fifty years. Utrecht was his diocese. About the same time Disen, an Irish monk, labored in France and Germany, being particularly successful around Metz.
In the sixth century Nestorian missionaries penetrated into China. For about 250 years they labored in that land and translated part of the Scriptures into Chinese. They erected a monument at Sian Fu, the capital of Shensi, which remained until recent times, on which they recorded their work and set out the essentials of the Christian faith. They appear to have quitted China in the year 781.
To the eighth century belongs the history of the venerable Bede. He was born in Jarrow in Durham, educated from childhood in the monastery of Wearmouth, and he appears to have been devoted to the service of God from his youth. He transferred later to a monastery at Jarrow and there spent his life. Prayer, reading of the Scriptures, writing and teaching occupied his days. He was celebrated throughout the West, and the Pope invited him to Rome, but the world had no attraction for him, and he was content to serve in comparative obscurity all his days. He was never idle and wrote on all the branches of knowledge known in Europe in his day. He was skilled in Greek and Hebrew. His Church history is well-known. His influence was blessed to many. While his writings are not free from the defects of the age, he had real evangelical light and was a true lover of God. Among his last words were, “My soul desires to see Christ my king in His beauty.” He died in 735.
In this century there were many godly and evangelical men in Britain who took the gospel to the less illuminated parts of Europe. Winfrid, born in Devon about 680, was one of these. He longed for the conversion of the heathen and went first to Bavaria, where he reformed the churches, and then into Thuringia where he was instrumental in spreading the gospel among pagans. Later he made a second visit to Friesland where Willibrod was still working. Thence he went to Hesse where he propagated the gospel under great hardships and amid many dangers from the hostile natives.
On the occasion of a visit to Rome, the Pope changed his name to Boniface. Returning to the scene of his labors, he was joined by many others, and a great extension of the gospel took place in Germany. In 732 he was given the title of Archbishop by Pope Gregory III. Thus Rome extended its influence by means of men whose real motive was the glory of God and the love of souls. Boniface had expressed a “desire for the honor of dying for the love of Him who died for us.” This desire was fulfilled. On a certain day he was preparing to baptize a large number of converts, when he and his followers were surprised by an armed band of pagans. His servants prepared to resist, but he restrained them. “Children, forbear to fight,” he said. “The Scripture forbids us to render evil for evil. The day which I have long waited for is come; hope in God and He will save your souls.” The furious pagans slaughtered the whole company of fifty-two beside Boniface himself. He had labored forty years in Germany and met thus a martyr’s end when seventy-five years of age. This was in the year 755. His character has been aspersed by some historians, and his submission to the Roman See may be the cause of this. The manner of his death seems a sufficient refutation of these aspersions. The names of many other devoted men could be added to this record, for this period has been called an age of missionaries.
Another remarkable man to whom brief reference must be made is Alcuin. He, too, was an Englishman, born at York in 735. One of the most learned men of the age, he attracted the attention of Charlemagne, who persuaded him to settle in France. He became counselor and tutor to Charlemagne and his family and the distinguished men of his court. This no doubt had a beneficent influence on that monarch. At the instance of Charlemagne he revised the Vulgate Bible.
The second council of Nicea held at this time had enjoined the worship of images. Alcuin opposed its decrees by direct appeal to Scripture. In this he was in opposition to the Pope, who supported the authority of Council. In Britain, too, there was much opposition. The Pope had not at this epoch secured complete ascendancy over the Church in Europe, though his influence was very considerable.
It seems appropriate to close this phase of Church history with details of a body of Christians outside the pale of the Church who form a link between the seventh and ninth centuries. They were known as Paulicians. In the seventh century the Scriptures were little known to the common people, who were dependent on the clergy for their teaching. Books of any kind were rare and expensive, and illiteracy prevailed among both high and low. In the year 660, one Constantine, who lived near Samosata, entertained a prisoner returning from captivity among the Muhammadans and received in return a copy of the New Testament or a large part of it. Through the teaching of the Holy Spirit, he became enlightened. Drawing his doctrine from the fountain of truth, he was free from the errors which filled the Church and veiled in measure the sacred oracles even from those who had access to them. The doctrine of the Apostle Paul seems to have made a deep impression on his mind. This is peculiarly interesting because it was just the Pauline features of truth which the Church had abandoned at the first. Taking the name of Sylvanus, Constantine began, with his followers, to preach the truth. Pontus and Cappadocia were through this means visited by a revival of Christian doctrine. Companies of believers gathering in a simplicity reminiscent of the early days grew up in Asia Minor. They rejected images and superstitions and carried on their worship according to the scriptural pattern. The greatest proof of their genuineness is perhaps in the fact that they attracted to themselves the same bitter persecution which had once fallen upon the early Christians. Sylvanus himself was stoned to death after twenty-seven years of devoted service. Capital punishment was decreed against them and any who harbored them. Their books were burned. For about 180 years they endured persecution. Finally, the Empress Theodora, a fanatical devotee of image worship, made an effort to extinguish them utterly. Her inquisitors ransacked Asia in search of them, and it is said that she put to death by fire and sword and the hangman’s rope a hundred thousand. All this they endured, obedient to the Word: “He that killeth with the sword must be killed with the sword. Here is the patience and the faith of the saints” (Rev. 13:1010He that leadeth into captivity shall go into captivity: he that killeth with the sword must be killed with the sword. Here is the patience and the faith of the saints. (Revelation 13:10)).
In time, however, the faith of those who escaped death seems to have waned. They took up arms in their own defense, and, with the help of the Muhammadan power, secured their independence. We have here another example of the tares among the wheat, for there is little in common between such a policy and the faithful self-sacrifice of the martyred ones. Rome showed her evil character at this time, for Pope Nicholas (858) greatly applauded the zeal of the Empress in the horrible massacre of the Paulicians.