THE WISDOM OF EGYPT.
“Moses was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians.”
Acts 7:22.
IN what did this wisdom consist? This we may perhaps gather in some measure from the historians and the monuments. It was wisdom in natural things, to be seen when contrasted with the heathen world; but not that wisdom that cometh from above, the beginning of which is the fear of the Lord.
The question as to the wisdom of Egypt is more important than appears at first sight; for there are good men who have not hesitated to trace nearly all the laws and ceremonies of the Jewish ritual to what Moses learnt in Egypt!
Let one specimen suffice: Hengstenberg says, "The Egyptian reference in the Urim and Thummim is especially distinct and incontrovertible." He translates Urim and Thummim to signify 'light and truth,' and says, "the high priest among the Egyptians, as superior judge, wore around his neck an image of sapphire, which was called truth." Wilkinson, after speaking of this badge worn by the Egyptians, says, "A similar emblem was used by the high priests of the Jews; and it is a remarkable fact, that the word Thummim is not only translated truth, but, being a plural or dual word, corresponds to the Egyptian notion of the ' two truths,' or the double capacity of this goddess.”
Thus the most sacred things in the Jewish ritual—even to the Urim and Thummim—are said to be found in the idolatrous rites of the Egyptians; and that which was used to set forth their abominations is thought worthy to be copied in the worship of the true God!
It cannot be denied that the Egyptians had badges of priestly office, and emblematical adornments. Thus in the great Harris Papyrus, the king says to his god, "I made thee a pectoral plate for thy breast of the best gold, of Katmer [and] silver made with a setting of meh and of real lapis lazuli, to be united to thy limbs on the great throne of the horizon." The same king says, "I made for thee vases of the tables of libation of thy great place with censers, jars, stands having lavers, and water bottles [and] great lamps for offerings, with divine food: they were of gold and silver," &c. But to say that these things were copied in any way by Moses would be to shut out God. The statements of scripture are quite clear that the whole Jewish ritual came direct from God, and not even from Moses, except as the mouth-piece and instrument of God.
The Ten Commandments are introduced with the words, "And God spake all these words, saying." Again, "And the Lord said unto Moses, Come up to me into the mount, and be there; and I will give thee tables of stone, and a law, and commandments which I have written; that thou mayest teach them." (Ex. 12.)
Again, "Let them make me a sanctuary, that I may dwell among them, according to all that I show thee, after the pattern of the tabernacle, and the pattern of all the instruments thereof; even so shall ye make it." (Ex. 8, 9.) "Who serve unto the example and shadow of heavenly things, as Moses was admonished of God when he was about to make the tabernacle: for, See, saith he, that thou make all things according to the pattern sheaved to thee in the mount." (Heb. 8:5.)
Thus-even to the shovel and tongs used in the tabernacle-all was of God and not of what Moses had learnt in Egypt; and all were shadows of heavenly things, and not the things of Egypt. It is marvelous that anyone calling himself a Christian can hold anything so monstrous as Moses copying from Egypt. Their sins may have been copied from Egypt, but surely not their holy things.
Yet Moses was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians; and again the question returns in what did that wisdom consist?
We think it would however be going too far to say that the wisdom of Egypt did not come from God. Let anyone look at the low and degraded state of the inhabitants of Central Africa even to this day, and contrast with it not what Egypt is now, but what it was thousands of years ago when its magnificent temples, tombs, and pyramids were built—and can any say that it was not God who made the difference? If Egypt had learned its arts and sciences from its intercourse with God's favored people Israel, we might have come to another conclusion; but there was a people civilized and enlightened before even the call of Abraham.
We doubt not that God made man a civilized and intelligent being, far removed from what we now understand by a savage. This is fully borne out by scripture. Adam was placed in the Garden of Eden "to dress it and to keep it," and husbandry is one of the signs of civilization in distinction from feeding on what simply grows of itself. Again all the animals and birds were brought to Adam for him to give them names: this marks intelligence. Indeed, when we read that "God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him," there cannot be a shadow of doubt on the subject.
Of the first two sons of Adam, one was "a keeper of sheep," and the other "a tiller of the ground," two indisputable marks of civilization.
Now it may be, and probably was, that Adam and Cain had no other implements than what were made out of flint—and thus commenced "the stone age"—for it is not until Tubal—Cain that we read of "brass and iron" or rather copper, or bronze, and iron. We are aware that many will think that this is much too early for the bronze and iron ages to have commenced. But on comparing the pedigree of Tubal-Cain, through Cain with the descendants of Seth, also a son of Adam, it will be seen that Tubal-Cain was the seventh from Adam, and corresponded with Methuselah, also the seventh from Adam. Now Methuselah was not born till 687 years after Adam, and lived till 1656 years after the creation—the year of the flood. So that this gives 1000 years for the Stone Age, 500 for the Bronze Age, and 156 for the Iron Age before the flood, or the 1656 years may have been divided in any other proportions.
Scripture is quite clear on the point that iron was in use before the flood, and this metal would thus doubtless be known to Shem, Ham, and Japheth, and their descendants, the builders of Babel. On the dispersion of man, this knowledge would be carried into the various countries then about to be inhabited, and at first sight it may seem strange that persons used to iron instruments should go back to stone. But where the people became isolated and the few metal instruments they may have taken with them were worn out or broken—unless metals could be found where they were, and a knowledge retained of how they could be turned to good account, there was nothing left for them but to resort to the stones, and their children or their grandchildren would see and know nothing beyond.
One thing is certain that many of the descendants of the builders of Babel did fall from civilization and intelligence to a savage state, as was witnessed to in many countries but a few years since, and may be in some places to this hour. Thus, in Tierra del Fuego, the inhabitants (considered by some to be the lowest in the scale of civilization) had quite recently stone weapons and knives, ate much of their food raw, were cannibals, and exceedingly filthy in their habits. Where such are isolated, they remain savages: civilization, after being lost, in the main comes from without.
There is no difficulty therefore in seeing that the. stone age may have continued hundreds of years after the flood in countries uninhabited before the dispersion, followed by a long bronze age; and then an iron age: while, on the other hand, Egypt may have retained its use of metals all through, or used stone only till metal could be procured—and have been preserved from falling into that moral degradation into which many nations undoubtedly fell.
Another remarkable thing is, that there does not appear to have been in Egypt a slow and gradual progress in the arts, as in other nations; for the most ancient sculptures and masonry are as perfect as those of later date: indeed it may truly be said that they declined rather than that they improved.
Egypt was thus preserved in a high state of civilization, and with a knowledge of the arts and sciences—fitting it to be an apt emblem of the WORLD—but a world, alas! that only turned its back upon its Creator, and fell into idolatry.
We must distinguish therefore between the arts and sciences in themselves, and the use men made of them. This may be illustrated by Cain and his descendants. Cain "went out from the presence of the Lord," and he and his sons attempted to make themselves comfortable and happy without God. Of them two things may be named. Jubal was "the father of all such as handle the harp and organ;" and Tubal—Cain was "an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron.”
Now these very metals were skillfully worked for the temple of God (1 Kings 7:14; 2 Chron. 2:7), and by these very musical instruments God was worshipped of old (Psa. 149:3; 150:4), clearly skewing that there was nothing evil in the things themselves, but in the use that was made of them.
We also see in the construction of the tabernacle that God gave wisdom in natural things, " to devise curious works, to work in gold, and in silver, and in brass, and in the cutting of stones to set them, and in carving of wood, to make any manner of cunning work.... to work all manner of work of the engraver, and of the cunning workman, and of the embroiderer," &c. (Ex. 35:32-35.) The question was to what use did man turn these gifts?
We can only just name the arts and sciences for which the Egyptians were noted: together with a few marks of civilization in general.
SCULPTURE. The Egyptian figures are often thought to be stiff and devoid of grace, but we must make allowance for conventionalism, and the great size of many of the statues. The figures are made very much alike, except it be in the face, where a likeness was most probably attempted. A number of parallel lines were drawn, which were apportioned out to different parts of the body; the same number being given to the legs, body, head, &c., of each statue. But the series was different at different times. This would naturally produce a marked uniformity, which we, according to our notions, would think better avoided. Diodorus says this was so systematically carried out that when different persons were engaged on the same statue the parts would exactly correspond when brought together.
Another thing to be noticed is that the Egyptian statues mostly agreed with the thought of rest. It is said that in the earliest monuments there are no representations of soldiers or war: it is all peaceful occupation and the gods and kings in perfect repose. If the figure is standing, the arms are close to the sides, the hands either clenched or extended, the right hand sometimes being raised to the breast. If the figure is seated, the hands rest upon the knees. Sometimes groups were formed, as two persons on the same seat, with the arms round the waist, or holding each other's hands, or a king is seated and his wife and children stand by the side. But repose marks the whole. In the paintings, however, of a later date, scenes of conquest and slaying of enemies are often depicted.
It has been said that the Egyptians did not understand anatomy, as evidenced by the statues. Perhaps not, the limbs are generally smooth, yet there is a detached arm of large size in the British Museum which has the external anatomy of the muscles strongly and, as is judged, pretty correctly marked. Its size, and, when we consider the hardness of the material, its beautiful polish, mark it as a wonderful piece of work for those early days.
In general the form in the statues "is slender," says Mr. Birch, "the features calm, and not betraying emotion. The inner markings of the figure are not given, and indications of muscular movement never fully developed. The sculptures were well adapted for architectural effect from their grand, simple, and vertical lines, great regularity, squareness, and repose, occasionally exhibiting great delicacy. Portraiture was early known, and a conventional character of features assigned to different divinities, assimilated to that of the reigning monarch. The features at the earlier period are more Asiatic, but skew at a later period the admixture of Nigritic blood. In portraiture and execution the early statues from the fourth to the sixth dynasty are unrivalled." After the nineteenth dynasty the figures were elongated and finished with less care, and the art became less pure.
It is said by Pausanias, that at one time there was a great resemblance between the Grecian statues and the Egyptian, "but the Greeks at last emancipated themselves from the fetters of a traditional type and an unvarying conventional sameness; and by studying and imitating the human form, they gradually transferred its beauties to the statues of the deities, which, instead of being fashioned upon the rules of ancient art, gradually became the ideal personifications of beauty.”
The Egyptians had three descriptions of sculpture. 1. The complete figure detached, or nearly so, from the rock. 2. Where the figure was drawn on the stone, and the stone cut away all round, which left the figure raised. This is called bas-relief. 3. When the figure was cut in the stone, leaving the surrounding stone raised. The figure was cut deeper at the margins, leaving the center raised nearly, or quite, to the original surface. The Italians call this intaglio rilevato.
There are many specimens to be seen in the British and other museums, which will give truer ideas of the art than can be conveyed in a written description. There are also the figures formed on the many specimens of pottery. PAINTING. The painting of the Egyptians was often combined with the art of the sculptor on the walls of the tombs. The figures after being cut were colored. There were others painted, without being cut. Mummy cases were also painted and varnished. Sometimes the stone coffers also were painted.
In one tomb examined by Belzoni, all the chambers were in bas-relief and painted, except one, which was left unfinished, and thus he was enabled to see how they proceeded in their work. "The first process was to make the wall quite smooth, filling up the interstices, if any, with plaster. The outline of the figures was then drawn by some apprentice or inferior hand, in red lines, and corrected by the principal workman in black. Then the sculptor chiseled out the form, cutting away the stone all round the outline, which would leave the figure standing out above the rest of the stone to the height of half an inch, or less if the figure was a small one. The angles of the bas-relief were afterwards rounded, so as to diminish the prominence of the object. The dress and the limbs were marked by narrow lines, not more than the thickness of a half-crown in depth, but exact enough to produce the desired effect. The next process was to lay on a coat of lime-whitewash, which in these tombs is so beautiful and clear as to surpass the finest white paper. The painter then completed his work. When the figures were finished, a coat of varnish was laid on, or perhaps in some cases it was incorporated with the color.”
The colors used were blue, red, green, yellow, white, and black. They never compounded the colors, unless it was for a brown, nor softened them down, though they may have had darker and lighter blues, &c. So that their paintings must have looked gorgeous rather than chaste. Many of their paintings retain more or less of their colors to this day, as may be seen in the museums; but in our climate some of them are gradually fading away, notwithstanding the greatest care taken of them.
One use they made of colors was to distinguish foreigners from natives, by painting their faces and uncovered parts a different color: this, with different hair and beard, often pointed out the foreigner; though the sculptor also varied the contour of the face considerably; in negroes this is very marked.
What distinguishes the paintings of Egypt more strongly than anything else is the entire absence of perspective. Here is a house of three stories situate in a garden, with trees and a vinery, several pools of water, and two small summer houses. An entrance gate, and a row of trees between the outside of the garden and the canal or river. It will be seen that it is not simply a ground-plan; but is a picture devoid of perspective.
It may be remarked as to the portraits of the kings that if one is represented several times, all are alike: and if he had a long reign, and different events of his life are recorded, the same face is preserved at the last as at the first, no attention being paid to his features altering by age.
The representation of males is often distinguished from that of females by the addition of a square conventional beard. The Egyptians did not let their beards grow, so that if they wore any beards at any time, they must have been artificial; and indeed some of the monuments represent strips passing up each side of the face, by which the beard was kept in its place. But this may have been to show that it was a conventional beard, and not a real one.
ARCHITECTURE. We suppose this must be said to be Egyptian in style, as being like no other. Mr. Birch says the building of the pyramids shows profound knowledge of geometry combined with fine masonry.”
Mr. Gliddon says "the style of architecture was grand and chaste! while the columns now termed Doric, and attributed to the Greeks, were in common use in this reign [Osortasen, sixteenth dynasty], which precedes the Dorians by a thousand years. The arch, both round and pointed, with its perfect key-stone, in brick and in stone, was well known to the Egyptians long before this period.... In architecture, as in everything else, the Greeks and the Romans obtained their knowledge from their original sources in Egypt, where still existing ruins attest priority of invention a thousand years before Greece, and fifteen hundred years before Rome.”
The arch has been found made of brick and of stone.
When bricks began to be used, the want of timber for bressimers, led to the use of the arch. Roofs could be made of huge blocks of stone, but not of bricks. Sir J. G. Wilkinson judges that the brick arch was in common use in the age of Amunoph I. (eighteenth dynasty); but the earliest brick arch known is of the time of Psammitichus (twenty-sixth dynasty).
The columns show a variety of design, but except those which were quite plain, are mostly represented by stalks of the papyrus, bound together with capitals formed of the buds of the same plant. In later times the capitals were formed of the face of Isis on four sides, with representations of temple entrances above the face, as may be seen in an illustration we give from the great temple at Karnak in chapter vii.; but this is not considered to be pure Egyptian art. The grandeur of its architecture is seen in the immensity of the temples. See our frontispiece, where there are other forms of columns.
ASTRONOMY. We have but slight indications as to how far the Egyptians attained proficiency in this science. One of the first things astronomy regulates is the length of the year, and there are proofs that the Egyptians at an early date had their attention called to the true length of the year.
As their agriculture depended upon the inundation of the Nile, the rising of the river would naturally be an important event of the year. Nilometers were erected, it is believed, as early as the twelfth dynasty, by which the rise of the water could be accurately measured. And if its rise did not take place in the same time of the year, its deviation would be sure to be observed.
The "month" was represented by a crescent of the moon, which seems to prove that they first reckoned by lunar months. Afterwards they reckoned by solar months, and had twelve months of thirty days each; but as this made only three hundred and sixty days, it would soon be discovered that this year did not correspond with the seasons, so five days were added to the last month to make the year three hundred and sixty-five days.
The year was divided into three portions. 1, The “season of plants," which embraced the first four months. 2, "Manifestation," as is supposed—the next four months. 3," Tanks of water"—the inundation—the last four.
In each series, the hieroglyphics were the same for each except being marked 1, 2, 3, 4; thus, first month of plants, second month of plants, &c.
|
Egyptian
|
Coptic
|
Anciently commenced.
|
|
1. Thoth
|
Toot
|
July 20.
|
|
2. Paophi
|
Babet
|
August 19.
|
|
3. Athyr
|
Hatoor
|
September 18.
|
|
4. Choiak
|
Keeak
|
October 18.
|
|
5. Tybi
|
Toobet
|
November 17.
|
|
6. Mechir
|
Imsheer
|
December 17.
|
|
7. Phamenoth
|
Barampat
|
January 16.
|
|
8. Pharmuthi
|
Baramoodet
|
February 15.
|
|
9. Pathons
|
Beshens
|
March 17.
|
|
10. Payni
|
Bayonet
|
April 16.
|
|
11. Epiphi
|
Ebib
|
May 16.
|
|
12. Mesore
|
Mesoree
|
June 15.
|
In B.C. 25, an Alexandrian year was commenced, placing the first of Thoth on August 29, and each month began forty days later than previously.
But three hundred and sixty-five days would still disarrange the year. In a hundred and twenty years the seasons would be a full month out. They therefore added a day every fourth year—similar to the day added in our leap year. The length of each year was reckoned from "the heliacal rising of the dog-star." It was therefore called "the Sothic year." It was found that one thousand four hundred and sixty of the Sothic years corresponded with one thousand four hundred and sixty-one vague years.
There appears to have been an oath administered to the kings, “that they would not intercalate any month or day, but that the sacred year of three hundred and sixty-five days should remain as instituted in ancient times. "From this it would appear that they kept two reckonings—indeed they seem to have had three different years: one for the reign of the kings, of three hundred and sixty days, the sacred year of three hundred and sixty-five days, and of another by so many days being added, according to the number of" fours" since the rising of the dog-star fell on the first of Thoth. It has been computed that this event took place in B. C. 1322, though it may have been known before. It is thought evident that the five days were added as early as the twelfth dynasty.
An early writer says that the year of three hundred and sixty-five days was retained in order to insure the festivals of the gods passing in the course of time, through the entire year.
NAVIGATION. But little is known as to the progress the Egyptians made in this science. We read of the fleets of Sesostris, Amosis, and the Rameses, and they no doubt navigated the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. It is also recorded that some Phoenician sailors, sent by Pharaoh Necho, sailed round Africa.
Their boats were of various shapes and sizes, according to the purposes for which they were built. Some were war ships, and as long as four hundred and twenty feet, and some were built for merchandise. Many, of course, merely traversed the Nile. Their boats were built of cedar, acacia, and papyrus; they were constructed with ribs and small keels. They carried but one mast, and the sails were made of linen. Others were row boats only. The common boat of the Nile, used for merchandise or cattle, is thus represented on the monuments. Some long pegs and a mallet enabled the boatmen to "bring to" at any part of the banks of the river.
WORKING OF METALS. There is reason to believe that at a very early period, copper, iron, lead, and gold were used in Egypt. In some of the lists there is apparently an electrum alluded to as "gold white" (NUB HUT), in contradistinction from "white gold," which is silver.
IRON instruments are not found, but it would be difficult to see how the many statues in the hardest stone could have been formed with the softer metals. An ancient writer speaks of the working of gold mines in Egypt, and says that the rocks were cleft by heating them with burning wood, to which the workmen applied their iron instruments. This he writes in the first century R.G., but says, "even at the present day we may find copper (χαλαί) chisels or implements in the galleries (the use of iron not having been known at the time), and innumerable skeletons of the wretched beings who lost their lives in the passages of the mine." Herodotus also mentions iron instruments being used at the erection of the pyramids.
The perishable nature of iron may account for its not being found in the ruins of Egypt. Colonel Vyse found a piece of iron between two stones in the Great Pyramid, but this may have been left by the Arabs when they forced an entrance. The monuments represent butchers sharpening their knives on what appear to be steels slung to their waists, which could hardly be the case unless the knives were of iron or steel. Some of the swords, too, are colored blue, which would seem to represent iron. That the Egyptians should have this metal and know its use is not surprising, seeing that Tubal-Cain is spoken of as early as Gen. 4:22, as "the instructor of every artificer in brass and iron.”
GOLD was beaten into thin leaves, and largely used for gilding. Vessels of baser metal were "gilded;" and vases and many other things, even to portions of mummy cases were overlaid with gold. It was also made into threads and worked into textures and in embroidery. They also worked it up into all sorts of ornaments and chains. Pharaoh put a gold chain round the neck of Joseph. Jewelry of all sorts was made: bracelets, diadems, earrings, chased and inlaid with engraved stones.
The symbol for gold is a bowl in which is a cloth, and from which something is dropping like water, pointing out, apparently, the way in which the gold ore was washed. The monuments shew the various processes of washing, melting, &c.
SILVER was also used. It was called, as we have seen; "white gold." Joseph had a "silver" cup. It was not so extensively used as gold for vessels or ornaments, being principally used for money, though it was made into thread and wire.
WIRE-DRAWING was known to the Egyptians. They may at first have beaten the metals into thin cakes, and then cut them into narrow strips and filed them; but it is supposed by the, appearance of some found at Thebes, that they had some means of drawing the wire through holes similar to the modern process. The gold and silver wire was very fine.
BRONZE was extensively used in Egypt. Some of the utensils bear inscriptions as old as the sixth dynasty. Rameses III speaks of importing copper from an unknown place—Ataka. He accumulated hundreds of thousands of bricks of ore, "of the color of gold." The bronze was of excellent quality, and vases made of it ring like a bell even at this distance of time. Some of the blades of knives and daggers are almost as elastic as steel. The exact composition of the best bronze is not known. Some of it has been found to be ten to twenty parts of tin, with eighty to, ninety of copper. Vases, jugs, ewers, and drinking cups were made in a variety of shapes, polished and ornamented, and with ornamental handles. It was also much used for the heads and blades of the war-axe. In a mine, among the chips of stone was found a bronze chisel, leading almost to the thought that the Egyptians had found a means of using bronze tools against hard stone.
GLASS, PORCELAIN, &c. The Egyptians made many useful articles as well as small ornaments of stone porcelain and alabaster.
Specimens have been found of burnt clay with a varnish or glaze on them, and colors in high perfection. Egypt had its glass blowers, and made bottles, vases, and cups. They also cast, ground, and engraved cut glass, and were enabled to color it, and used it in imitation of precious stone. They also discovered a means of introducing gold leaf between two layers of glass.
In glass-blowing a portion of glass was taken up on the end of a long tube, and blown into shape, as is done to this day.
They had a sort of opaque glass of which they made beads and bugles, and strung them. They are of various colors—blue, green, and violet. The violet has been found to be colored with oxide of manganese; the blue and green with copper.
More fragments of pottery are no great sign of civilization, but the form and finish of some of the Egyptian articles are adjudged to be very fine.
The monuments give the various occupations of the potter. They kneaded the clay with their feet. Then placing a proper quantity on the potter's wheel, they brought it to any shape they required. The wheels in our illustration are being turned by the hand. The articles were carried carefully to the ovens and baked. FURNITURE. The principal piece of furniture used by the Egyptians was the chair. They sat, rather than reclined, as the Jews did. At meals they had low tables, more like stools with a pedestal in the center, round which the people sat on the floor. But at their parties, musical as well as social, the company are represented mostly as sitting on chairs. Some of these chairs are of singularly beautiful form, and some resemble thrones rather than chairs. One writer says that “the cabinetmakers of Egypt were not behind the best of our own day, either in tasteful design or manual execution.”
Next to the chairs were the couches, which had tasteful designs worked out in their various parts. On some of these were cushions of red and blue, stuffed with feathers of the waterfowl.
Then there were boxes in every variety of form and design. Some were inlaid with different woods, and some made of ebony, inlaid with ivory.
The rarer woods were also imitated by a coating of stucco being laid on and then colored, grained, and varnished.
VENEERING also was known to the ancient Egyptians. As with us, rare woods were cut into thin slices and glued to commoner wood.
DOVETAILING was also practiced by the Egyptians, and flat boards were glued together and then pinned in a very strong way.
THE TOOLS of the carpenter and cabinet-maker were simple, and such as would not suffice for any European workman of this day. They had the wooden mallet, chisels of various sorts—the adze, handsaw made of bronze, drill, a plane resembling a chisel and another as a. kind of rasp, rule, plummet, and square. They had bronze nails, wooden pegs, and some sort of glue. But labor was cheap, and any amount of time could be devoted to the shaping and polishing the articles. As with the Chinese and others, the wonder has always been how such delicate and highly finished articles could have been produced with such common tools.
WORKING OF LEATHER. Leather was extensively used in Egypt; and skins are often seen among the tribute brought from subordinate districts or countries. The skins were tanned into leather, and then put to various uses. What is now known as "the circular cut" was not unknown to the Egyptians. A skin was cut into a circular form, and then with a semicircular knife, commencing at the outside, the whole hide was cut into one long thong.
Leather was used for shoes, sandals, chair and sofa covers, bow cases, and the ornamental parts of chariots. Some of the leather straps round the mummies are well preserved, and bear the names of kings stamped upon them. The Egyptians also dyed and embossed their leather.
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. These were principally the harp, which was made of various shapes, with the strings made of catgut, and varying in number from four to twenty-two; guitars, and pipes of different shapes, some being double; cymbals made of bronze; trumpets also of bronze; sistra of silver and bronze; chains of bronze; and castanets of metal, bone, or wood.
The performers are represented playing in concert or accompanying the singers.
WEAVING. The weaving and dyeing of linen was well known and practiced by the Egyptians. Some of the mummy cloths are as fine as muslin and evenly made. One is described as "wrapped in a garment curiously wrought with gold lace, and apparently of a tough texture." Egyptian linen was an article of export, and was of high repute among the Greeks in the time of Herodotus.
Joseph was arrayed in "fine linen" (Gen. 41:42), and even in Solomon's days "linen yarn" was brought from Egypt by the king's merchants "at a price.”
(2 Chron. 1:16.)
In Ezek. 27:7, it is said to Tyre, "fine linen, with broidered work from Egypt, was that which thou spreadest forth to be thy sail." The monuments represent the spinning to be the work of the women, and the weaving to be done by men and women. The looms were of the simplest description, which makes the fineness of the work to be all the more remarkable; for some that has been found has been declared, for evenness of the threads, without knot or break, to excel any of modern manufacture.
In Prov. 7:16, the bed was decked with "fine linen of Egypt.”
“Pliny and Athenæus ascribe the invention of weaving to Egyptians. Some products of their loom were so remarkably fine that they felt like silk, or resembled entirely the finest cambric or muslin, and were therefore called `woven air.' The most remarkable feature in its manufacture is, that the number of threads in the warp exceeded that of the woof, often even by threads four times the quantity. The linen employed for enveloping the mummies was of a much coarser texture, especially that which was next to the body. Linen was likewise exclusively used for household purposes, for dresses, as for the coverings of chairs and couches. The textures had often colored borders; in such cases, the color was imparted to the threads previous to the fabrication of the cloth."
The monuments show men soaking the flax, also beating it with clubs, and twisting it into twine, and weaving it into cloth. Many women are also shown to be spinning the flax into thread with spindles. The spindles are mostly made of wood, and were about one foot three inches in length. One of such is in the British Museum. Combs were also used to clean the flax, one of which is in the Berlin Museum.
The borders of some of their cloths are made by leaving long ends of the warp, twisted together and tied, just as the borders of shawls are made to this day.
Some of the cloths were of so fine a texture as almost to be transparent. Thus in some of the monuments the dresses of musicians, dancers, &c., appear so thin as plainly to show the form of the body through the dress. Belzoni, speaking of the inhabitants of a small island, describes their weaving in his day as that of the most primitive kind. " The wool they spin into yarn; wind the threads round small stones, and suspend them to a long stick fixed in a horizontal position between two trees, to form a warp; and by passing another thread alternately between these, fabricate a kind of coarse cloth, with which they cover the lower part of their bodies.”
“Simple enough, indeed, are their arts," says the authoress of" Eastern Life." “Early one morning, when walking ashore, I came upon a loom, which would excite the astonishment of my former townsmen, the Norwich weavers. A little pit was dug in the earth, under a palm-a pit just big enough to hold the treadles and the feet of the weaver, who sits on the end of the pit. The beam was made of a slender palm stern, fixed into two blocks. The treadles were made of spines of the palm fixed into bits of stick. The shuttle was, I think, a forked twig. The cotton yarn was even, and the fabric good, that is evenly woven. It was, though coarse, so thin that one might see the light through; but that was intended, and only appropriate to the climate.”
The same writer says, "I saw a little girl on the shore making cord, for tying round the waists of men; and was extremely surprised to observe that the process is the same as that of bobbin-making with the lyre by English ladies. Instead of an ivory lyre, this child had two crossed sticks; and her cotton thread was very coarse. It was striking to see this little art existing in places so widely apart.”
DYEING. The account given by Pliny is interesting. He says, "In Egypt they stain cloths in a wonderful manner. They take them in their original state, quite white, and imbue them, not with a dye, but with certain drugs which have the power of absorbing and taking color. When this is done, there is still no appearance of change in the cloths; but as soon as they are dipped into a bath of the pigment, which has been prepared for the purpose, they are taken out properly colored. The singular thing is, that though the bath contains only one color, several hues are imparted to the piece, these changes depending on the nature of the drug employed: nor can the color be afterwards washed off; and surely if the bath had many colors in it, they must have presented a confused appearance on the cloth.”
“From this it is evident," says Sir J. G. Wilkinson "that the cloth was prepared before steeping: the momentary effect he mentions could only be produced by the powerful agency of mordants; and they not only used them to make the cloth take the color equally, but also to change the hues.”
TEE LAWS OF EGYPT. The laws of ancient Egypt were professed to have been handed down from the gods in their celebrated code, called "The Eight Books of Hermes;" but we know little of what these books contained.
Cases were tried by a bench of thirty judges, chosen for their known character of honor and uprightness. Ten were chosen from each of the three cities of Heliopolis, Memphis, and Thebes. The thirty elected one of their number as chief judge, and another was sent to make up the thirty. They were well paid by the government so as to be above personal favor and bribery.
When a cause came on for trial the chief judge put on a gold chain to which was attached an image of the goddess of Truth, ornamented with precious stones.
This goddess was represented with her eyes closed, as we represent justice with a bandage over her eyes, that she may give her decision impartially. Of course there were other judges all over the country to judge minor causes.
The manner of conducting a case is worthy of being recorded. The complainant stated his case as fully as he pleased, but in writing, and stated the amount of damages to which he considered himself entitled.
The defendant then answered the accusation, denying it if he could, or palliating its offence; or in some cases admitting the offence, but disclaiming the amount of damages: this he did in writing.
The complainant replied to this; and then again the defendant: still in writing. Then witnesses, if any, were examined. And the judges weighed all, and gave their decision, and the verdict when ratified by the chief judge was made known by touching with the image of truth, the party in whose favor the decision was given.
The Egyptians considered this course a better one than having counsel on either side, who by mere eloquence might influence the minds of the judges.
A case of conspiracy in the time of Rameses III. is recorded. Apparently it was in conjunction with some of the women of the court, and was against the king. The case was referred to twelve persons of high rank—probably some of the chief judges—to search out the truth and punish the guilty, but they were to take care not to condemn the innocent. Several were found guilty of conspiracy, and others were punished for having heard words against the king, and not making them known.
Some suffered death probably by their own hands. Others had their noses and ears split probably the women to spoil their appearance. Judging apparently, by the navies, some of the judges were also punished either for taking part in the conspiracy or for taking bribes from the criminals.
Willful murder, whether of a freeman or of a slave, was punished by death, and was usually by hanging; anyone who witnessed this or any other crime, and did not do his best to prevent it, was held to be worthy of punishment. Where they were unable to prevent a crime, they were immediately to give information of the same, or such would be held to be guilty.
The king, however, had the prerogative to remit the capital punishment, and it is recorded of the king Sabaco, that he put no one to death during his reign of fifty years; but he made the culprits labor, for periods according to the nature of their crime, in raising the ground around the towns to preserve them from suffering from the inundations of the Nile.
Except for murder, and perhaps perjury, punishment by death was not inflicted. Three reasons were given for avoiding it: 1. Death gave no opportunity for repentance in the criminal. 2. It hurried him out of the world when he was least prepared for the future. 3. It deprived the state of the criminal's services.
Besides employment on public works, the stick was the common mode of punishment. Men and boys were beaten as they lay on the ground; women as they knelt. The bastinado, so common now in Egypt, was thus early adopted. A papyrus on the Praise of Learning, of the age of Rameses II., but probably copied from an earlier one, speaks of the forced laborer being "bastinadoed by a stick on his legs.”
In certain cases a person was punished by the loss of his hand, under the plea that the offending member should be the one to bear the punishment.
As to theft they had a remarkable system. As this crime could not be prevented, they hit upon a plan that punished the loser even more than the thief. All professed thieves were registered, with a respectable chief at their head. When a theft was committed it was immediately communicated by the thief to his chief. The one robbed would also make known his loss, and state the value of the lost property. One fourth of this was deducted, and the three fourths returned to the owner, or the owner paid the value of the fourth part, and all his property was returned. He thus lost a fourth for the want of vigilance, and the thieves had but a portion of their booty. This was deemed a better plan than putting the state to a large expense to protect the property of the public, and in hunting after the thieves.
In cases of debt there must be a written contract, and in failure to repay, the goods of the debtor might be seized, but not his person. Every person was considered to belong to the commonwealth, and this must not be damaged by the seizure of anyone.
To enforce the repayment of debts it became common for a person to give in pledge the tomb of his ancestors; and this was considered so sacred, that for a person not to redeem it was infamous; and neither he nor any of his family could be buried in the tomb until the debt was paid.
A few of the written contracts made on the sale of property have come down to us, some bearing the signatures of more than a dozen witnesses. We give the substance of one.
“In the reign of Cleopatra and Ptolemy her son, surnamed Alexander, the gods Philometores Soteres, in the year xii., otherwise ix., in the priesthood of the existing priests in Alexandria, [the priest] of Alexander and of the gods Soteres, [and a number of Egyptian gods] on the 29th of the month Tybi [February 5th], Apollonius being President of the Exchange of the Memnonians, and of the lower government of the Pathyritic nome, there was sold by Pamonthes, aged about forty-five, of middle size, dark complexion, and handsome figure, bald, round faced, and straight nosed; and by Snachomneus, aged about twenty, of middle size, sallow complexion, likewise round faced and straight nosed; and by Semmuthis Persineï, aged about twenty-two, of middle size, sallow complexion, round faced, flat nosed, and of quiet demeanour; and by Tathlyt Persineï, aged about thirty, of middle size, sallow complexion, round face, and straight nose, with their principal Pamonthes, a party in the sale; the four being of the children of Petepsais of the leather cutters of the Memnonia—out of the piece of level ground which belongs to them in the southern part of the Memnonia, eight thousand cubits of open field, one fourth [of the whole?], bounded on the south by the Royal Street; on the north and east by the land of Pamonthes and Boconsiemis, who is his brother, and the common land [or wall] of the city; on the west by the house of Tages the son of Chalome: a canal running through the middle, leading from the river; these are the neighbours on all sides. It was bought by Nechutes the less, the son of Asos, aged about forty, of middle size, sallow complexion, cheerful countenance, long face, and straight nose, with a scar upon the middle of his forehead:—for six hundred and one pieces of brass: the sellers standing as brokers, and as securities for the validity of the sale. It was accepted by Nechutes, the purchaser.
APOLLONIUS, Pr. Exch [?]"
MINOR INVENTIONS, &c. Of these we find but few. One, however, was the BLOWPIPE. This was known to the Egyptians. Our illustration shows a workman seated before a furnace, and using a, blowpipe to direct the flame upon some object upon which he is operating. He holds a pair of tongs with which to move his work.
THE BELLOWS. These were made apparently of skins, and in pairs. A man stood with one foot on each, and by means of strings he raised them alternately, and by pressing his foot expelled the air, which by means of pipes was conveyed to the fire.
Another was the SYPHON. In a tomb of Amunoph II. the priests are represented drawing off a liquid by means of syphons. Some are at work, and one is being brought into action by withdrawing the air, as it is at this day.
Agriculture.
This was conducted very simply. It has been said by some that no plowing was needed, but the monuments show clearly that this was not always the case. All operations waited for the inundation of the Nile. After that river had overflowed its banks, and had again retired, it left a soft bed of mud, which was ready in many instances for the seed; but if it got dry, or if the under soil needed to be broken up, a simple plough drawn by an ox, or sometimes by two men was used for the purpose.
The seed was thrown broadcast over the land, and then a flock of goats was turned into the field, and by means of rods they were kept moving about until they had trodden in the seed.
The heads of the wheat were cut off by long sickles, as was apparently the case in the days and country of Job, who says the wicked are cut off "as the tops of the ears of corn." The heads were then spread in layers and threshed by means of oxen walking over them. Men then by means of small shovels (called "fans" in scripture) threw up the wheat into the air and the wind carried away the chaff. Men collected the corn in baskets or sacks and took it to the storehouses, where a clerk sat with a tablet to register the quantity.
Then, as now, the men were very fond of singing, and in a tomb has been found one of their songs, in hieroglyphics. It was translated by Champollion, thus:
“Thresh for yourselves,
Thresh for yourselves,
O oxen,
Thresh for yourselves,
Thresh for yourselves,
Measures for yourselves,
Measures for your masters.”
The pictures have not omitted to show the gleaners following the reapers; with a basket on their backs, they pick up the scattered ears. Vessels with water are on stands in the field.
Besides wheat, much doura was grown, of which a common description of bread was made. Doura was pulled up by the roots, and then by means of an instrument in the form of a boot jack armed with spikes, the heads were dragged off, as may be seen in our illustration.
FLAX was also cultivated in Egypt, which was much' used in weaving, as well as for making string and rope, and then into nets and sieves.
When the ground needed water after the subsiding of the Nile, and in places not reached by the inundation, and for the gardens, water was raised from the river or canals by means of the shadoof, a simple instrument, made with a bucket attached to the end of a long pole which worked on a pivot, with a weight at the other end. Where the banks of the river were very high, they had several of these one over the other, and each man emptied his bucket into a trough high enough for the one above him to reach. A traveler says that he saw in one place six men placed one above another, thus raising the water to the high [illustration] lands above. Another saw a rude machine made of poles and earthenware jars, being turned by a blindfolded ox. The jars emptied themselves into a trough for watering a garden.
A SHADOOF.
Such is a slight sketch of the things in which the Egyptians excelled. We are now so accustomed to such things that we are hardly able to realize the extent of the civilization of Egypt at so early a date, unless we compare it with the uncivilized condition of any country—say of our own highly favored land in bygone ages. We would not over-estimate mere civilization, the arts and the sciences, and the accompanying advantages; but we cannot help thinking, as we have said, that even the wisdom of the Egyptians in natural things came from God; and that savage life when contrasted with ancient Egypt, shows that man not only fell from rectitude in the garden of Eden, but continued to fall even from civilization to the debasing habits of heathendom; not that Egypt made a good use of its advantages; for it failed to own the only true God, and fell into superstition and idolatry, with much of its attendant barbarism.