Division 2. - Herbs. (Heb., Chatzer)

 •  1 hr. read  •  grade level: 10
 
This Division includes Culinary Herbs, Flowers, and Weeds.
Besides the above, the word herb occurs twenty-six times in the Bible, generally in allusion to its being food for man and beast. In a figurative sense, as well as in Botany, the word has a very wide signification; in a general sense, it includes all plants that produce a flower stem direct from the ground, and after flowering and perfecting seed, wither and die. Such are generally known as herbaceous plants, which include both annual, biennial, and perennial rooted plants, the first coming into perfection in one year and then dying; the second in two years; and the third, having permanent roots, and producing flower stems yearly. Herbs, with grasses, constitute the greatest portion of the flora of the earth, presenting very great diversity of form and size; many furnish food for man and beast, while others are highly poisonous, though in the hands of the chemist they become important remedial agents in the cure of diseases.
Lilies (Heb., Shilsan)
The words lily, lilies, and lily-work are mentioned eleven times in the Bible, six in the Song of Solomon, all being emblematical of beauty and sweet scent. Lilies and lily-work are mentioned three times in Kings, for forming patterns of carved ornaments for the pillars and other parts of Solomon’s Temple.
In this country the term lily is a very general name given to many bulbous-rooted, pretty-flowering plants, especially of the Lily family (Liliaceœ), many of which are common in Palestine. Lilium chalcedonicum is, however, the only true Lily, native of that country, for although the white lily, Lilium candidum, is abundantly cultivated for its beauty, it is a doubtful native.
Some suppose the first to be the “Lily of the Valley,” while Sprengel considers it to be the jonquil, Narcissus Jonquilla; others think it was Amaryllis (Sternbergin) lutea, an autumn-flowering bulb, with bright yellow flowers, a native of South Europe and Palestine, where it is abundant in the vales.
It is, however, generally admitted that the lilies of the Bible cannot be identified with any special plant or plants, but that the term “lily” is a general one for all plants having open lily-like flowers, of showy colors, thus including Anemone, Ranunculus, Adonis, Cornflag, and even Iris, which are abundant in Palestine. Anemone coronaria, with its various brilliant colors, is the most conspicuous, and grows almost everywhere, without regard to soil or situation. It is abundant on the Mount of Olives, and may well be considered to represent the “lilies of the field” that surpassed “Solomon in all his glory.”
No doubt some special lily was used as a pattern for the carved lily-work for ornamenting Solomon’s Temple, and there is every reason to suppose that the ornaments were in the form of rosettes, and that the many-petaled rose-like flower of the common water lily, Nymphœa alba, a native of Palestine, or N. Lotus, supplied the pattern. There are sculptured representations of these found in the Egyptian tombs, thus showing that water lilies were used for such purposes in early times by the Egyptians.
Dr. Thomson describes a showy-flowering plant, which he calls the Hûleh lily, very abundant in many places. His description of the plant is very vague, but, judging from what he says, it appears to be a species of Iris.
It must be understood that the plant familiarly known in this country as the “Lily of the Valley” (Convallaria majalis), is not a native of Palestine, and therefore cannot be the “Lily of the Valley” of the Bible.
Rose of Sharon (Heb., Chablat Zeleth)
“I am the rose of Sharon, and the lily of the valleys.” – Song Of Sol. 2:1; 10141I am the rose of Sharon, and the lily of the valleys. (Song of Solomon 2:1) B.C.
Commentators are not agreed as to what plant is meant by the Rose of Sharon„ The word “Rose” appears have to originated in the Hebrew word for bulb having been translated “rose” in our Bibles. This has led to the inference that the bulbous-rooted plant, Narcissus Tazetta, is the Rose of Sharon, and that the “rose” of the present received its name from the circumstance of the fruit, well known as hips, being the shape of a bulb.
Narcissus Tazetta grows abundantly on the Plain of Sharon, which is a rich tract of land lying between the mountains of the central part of the Holy Land and the Mediterranean, supposed to be the region between Cæsarea and Joppa. It also grows on the slopes of the adjacent hills, and being sweet-smelling, is a great favorite with the people; during the flowering season, it is to be found in almost every house, especially in Damascus. There is, however, nothing in the text to lead us to suppose that the “Rose of Sharon” was sweet-smelling, and therefore any abundant and pretty-flowering plant growing in Sharon may be adopted as the one meant, such as the showy species of Rock rose, and brier rose. (See Rose).
Leek (Heb., Chatzir)
“We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt freely; the cucumbers, and the melons, and the leeks, and the onions, and the garlick.”—Numb. 11:5; 14905We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt freely; the cucumbers, and the melons, and the leeks, and the onions, and the garlick: (Numbers 11:5) B.C.
Leek, Allium Porrum; Onion, A. Cepa; Garlic, A. sativum. It is not here necessary to specially describe these three well-known, generally-esteemed, culinary vegetables, which have been cultivated in Egypt from remote antiquity, and in course of time have spread through the principal countries of the earth favorable to their growth. They belong to the bulbous-rooted section of the Lily family. The bulb of the leek, however, differs from the onion in being cylindrical, six or more inches in length, and formed by the long bases of the leaves overlapping one another, thus forming an apparent stem.
On account of the Hebrew word for leek being in other parts of the Bible rendered “herbs” and “grass,” and the Leguminous plant, Trigonella fœnum-grœcum, being greatly eaten in a young state as a salad by the Egyptians, and sold in the streets of Cairo at the present day, it is considered by some commentators to be the leek that the Israelites longed for.
T. fœnum-grœcum is a three-leaved clover-like annual plant, having a simple erect stem 2 to 3 feet high, with small axillary yellowish flowers. The seeds are also eaten. They are very mucilaginous, have a strong odor, and are used in this country to give a false importance to horse medicine, and for scenting damaged hay. There is, however, no reason for doubting that the plant the Israelites longed for was the true leek.
Garlick (Heb., Shoomin)
“We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt freely; the cucumbers, and the melons, and the leeks, and the onions, and the garlick.”—Num. 11:5; 14905We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt freely; the cucumbers, and the melons, and the leeks, and the onions, and the garlick: (Numbers 11:5) B.C.
Garlic, Allium sativum, is a hardy, bulbous perennial, belonging to the Lily family. It is wild, as well as cultivated, in Europe, Western Asia, and Egypt, as it was in the time of Moses. It is well known as a culinary stimulant, and, although not much used in this country, is extensively used in France, Italy, and Eastern countries, and is even eaten raw with bread. It is, however, probable that this was the kind cultivated in gardens under the name of Schallott, it being milder than A. sativum. It is wild, as well as cultivated, about the once-famed city of Escalon, in Palestine—hence its name, A. Escalonicum. The above are reported to have been cultivated in this country previous to 1548.
Onions (Heb., Belsal)
“We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt freely; the cucumbers, and the melons, and the leeks, and the onions, and the garlick.” Num. 11:5; 14905We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt freely; the cucumbers, and the melons, and the leeks, and the onions, and the garlick: (Numbers 11:5) B.C.
The native country of the onion is unknown. It has been cultivated in Egypt from time immemorial, and then, as now, was greatly used as an article of food, as it is also in Palestine. To show how highly onions, garlick, and radishes were esteemed, Herodotus relates that in his time (484 B.C.) there was an inscription on the Great Pyramid stating that a sum of 1,600 talents had been paid for supplying the workmen with these vegetables.
The onion is now widely spread over both hemispheres. It belongs to the Lily family, having a compact, coated bulb, formed of layers consisting of the broad bases of the leaves closely overlapping one another. There are several different varieties, varying chiefly in size and in being more or less mild in flavor, which is partly due to cultivation and climate, such as the Spanish and Portuguese onions imported to this country.
There is a kind called the underground or Egyptian onion, its peculiarity consisting in the main bulb producing numerous off-sets. It came into notice in this country about the beginning of the present century, but is not much cultivated.
Lentils (Heb., Adashim)
Ervum lens is an annual plant of the pea family, Leguminosœ. It has slender stems and winged leaves, producing flat pea-like pods, containing the lentils, which are the size of small peas and convex on both sides. There is a red variety, with which the red pottage was made that Jacob gave to Esau, and which continues to be cultivated in Egypt and Palestine. In France and some parts of Europe lentils are extensively cultivated, and great quantities are imported into this country. The meal is considered very nutritious, and a few years ago it was patented and sold in packets under the names “Ervalenta” and “Ervalenta,” these words being simply anagrams of the letters composing Ervum lens, with the addition of “ta.”
Pulse (Heb., Phul; Greek, Poltos).‬‭
“Wheat, and barley, and flour, and parched corn, and beans, and lentils, and parched pulse.”—2 Sam. 17:28; 102328Brought beds, and basons, and earthen vessels, and wheat, and barley, and flour, and parched corn, and beans, and lentiles, and parched pulse, (2 Samuel 17:28) B.C. “Let them give us pulse (zerَim) to eat, and water to drink.” “Melzar took away the portion of their meat.... and gave them pulse.”—Dan. 2:12,16; 606 B.C.
Pulse is a term applied to eatable seeds contained in pods, chiefly of the Leguminosœ family, such as peas, beans, kidney-beans, lentils, chickpeas, natives of the Northern hemisphere, where they have been cultivated from time immemorial as food plants, the seeds being either ground and made into bread, or parched, or with the husks eaten green as a vegetable. Such are the uses made of them not only in Palestine but in this and other countries. They are mostly annual plants, and require little art for their cultivation.
With regard to the Hebrew word translated pulse in Daniel, its true meaning is doubtful. Gesenius translates it “vegetables,” while others consider it to mean simply “seed.” Parched pulse is largely used in India, and forms a substantial food for the working class.
Beans (Heb., Pol)
The bean, Faba vulgaris, is an annual plant of the pea family, Leguminosœ. It is supposed to be originally a native of Persia, but having been extensively cultivated in Western Asia as a food plant in early times, the country of its origin is very uncertain. It was early cultivated in Egypt (of which there is evidence, by beans having been found in the mummy coffins), and the countries bordering the Mediterranean, both by the Greeks and Romans. The latter are supposed to have introduced it into this country. Its chief use is for feeding horses, and, although they are extensively grown in this country for that purpose, large quantities are yearly imported from Egypt and Morocco. A variety called the broad or Windsor bean is cultivated in gardens, and is a well-known vegetable.
Beans are extensively cultivated in Palestine, and bean meal is made into bread; they are also boiled, and eaten as a vegetable by the lower classes of that country.
Cucumbers (Heb., Trispium)
“We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt freely; the cucumbers, and the melons, and the leeks, and the onions, and the garlick.”—Num. 11:5; 14905We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt freely; the cucumbers, and the melons, and the leeks, and the onions, and the garlick: (Numbers 11:5) B.C. “The daughter of Zion is left as a cottage in a vineyard, as a lodge in a garden of cucumbers.”—Isa. 1:8; 7608And the daughter of Zion is left as a cottage in a vineyard, as a lodge in a garden of cucumbers, as a besieged city. (Isaiah 1:8) B.C.
The cucumber, Cucumis sativa, is a trailing annual plant, belonging to the family of Cucurbitaceœ. Its native country is unknown, having been cultivated in all the warm countries of the old world from time immemorial. In this country it has been cultivated for more than 300 years, chiefly under glass in gardens of the rich; but within the present, century it has been extensively grown in the market gardens in the open air, in the vicinity of London and other large cities. Its cultivation is, however, small compared with that of Egypt and Palestine; in those countries hundreds of acres of level moist lands, or such as can be irrigated, being occupied by cucumbers. A “lodge in a garden of cucumbers” is explained by the cultivators building a small house or lodge for a person to live in, to attend to, and watch the cucumber fields. They form an important part of the food of the people, especially of the lower classes; they are chiefly eaten raw, a cucumber and a barley cake or some other kind of bread constituting a meal. The size of cucumbers grown in the open air averages from 6 to 9 inches in length. In this country several new varieties have been raised, some producing fruit nearly 32 feet in length. Gherkins are the young fruit of the cucumber, and are extensively used as a pickle. In Egypt, O. Chate is also cultivated. On account of its young fruit being villose, it is called the hairy cucumber; its flesh is melon-like and more watery than the common cucumber.
Melon (Heb., Abattichim)
Cucumis Melo, the flesh melon, and C. Citrullus, the water melon, belong to the same family as the cucumber, and, like it, are annual, tendril-climbing plants. Under cultivation they generally trail on the ground. Melons have been cultivated in Egypt and other countries of the East from the remotest times, the first for its delicious fruit, the second also for its fruit, the flesh of which contains a watery fluid of an extensively refreshing nature, and which is probably the melon which the children of Israel longed for in the wilderness.
At the present day it is extensively cultivated in Egypt, Palestine, and the countries of the Mediterranean, and is conspicuous for quantity in the vegetable markets of some of the cities of Spain and Italy; some fruits weigh from twenty to thirty pounds. It is not much grown in this country, but occasionally it may be seen in the fruit shops in London. The flesh melon, however, of which there are many kinds, is extensively cultivated, but requires to be grown under glass.
It is said to have been introduced into England about the middle of the sixteenth century.
Gourd (Heb., Kikayon)
“And the Lord prepared a gourd, and made it to come up over Jonah, that it might be a shadow over his head, to deliver him from his grief.”—Jonah 4:6; 8626And the Lord God prepared a gourd, and made it to come up over Jonah, that it might be a shadow over his head, to deliver him from his grief. So Jonah was exceeding glad of the gourd. (Jonah 4:6) B.C.
Much has been written respecting the plant called gourd mentioned in the above verse. In modern times it has become a familiar name for plants of the cucumber family, such as bottle gourd, pumpkin, vegetable marrow, and others, which are extensively cultivated for culinary use, and all of which are trailing or climbing plants, with soft annual stems, and broad more or less deeply-lobed leaves. They are not only grown for their fruit, but also for affording shade to garden seats, generally known as arbors. From their rapid growth and broad leaves they are well adapted to this; and as they are used for such purposes in Palestine at the present day, it may reasonably be supposed that they were so used at Nineveh, and that the gourd of Jonah was one of this family. Although the stems of some gourds are known to grow at the rate of a foot a day, how Jonah’s gourd “came up in a night,” and attained sufficient size to “be a shadow over his head” cannot be explained, except by viewing it as a miracle.
The castor oil plant, Ricinus communis, has been supposed by Jerome, and later writers, to be the gourd of Jonah; but there is not sufficient evidence to warrant such supposition, which rests entirely on the Egyptian name, kibil, of the castor oil plant, being similar to the Hebrew name of the gourd. The Ricinus is a small tree, 10 to 15 feet in height, is widely spread over the warm parts of the earth, and is common in Syria. It has large broad-lobed leaves, and would afford ample shade if growing by the side of an arbor, but it is of much slower growth than the gourd, and a plant not likely to be quickly killed by a worm or grub. Its bruised seed supplies the castor oil. It belongs to the family Euphorbiaceœ.
Wild Gourd (Heb., Pakknoth-Sadeh)
“And one went out into the field to gather herbs, and found a wild vine (gephen-sadeh), and gathered thereof wild gourds his lapfull, and came and shred them into the pot of pottage: for they knew them not.”—2 Kings 4:39; 89139And one went out into the field to gather herbs, and found a wild vine, and gathered thereof wild gourds his lap full, and came and shred them into the pot of pottage: for they knew them not. (2 Kings 4:39) B.C.
The term “vine” is not only represented by the grape vine, but by trailing climbing plants in general. Although the grape vine grows wild in countries of Western Asia, it must not be confounded with the wild vine mentioned in the above verse, which is now generally admitted to be Citrullus Colocynthis, a plant of the cucumber family; it either trails on the ground or climbs by the aid of tendrils in the same manner as the cucumber and vegetable marrow. The fruit is about the size and color of an orange, has a smooth hard rind when dry, and contains a soft spongy pulp, which is intensely bitter and poisonous, but is used medicinally as a purgative. Specimens of the fruit are to be seen in show bottles in druggists’ windows. It is common in Western Asia and countries of the Mediterranean. In Palestine it covers dry sandy flats in the regions of the Dead Sea, the Plain of Engedi, and elsewhere, producing an abundance of orange-like fruit, very tempting to those unacquainted with its nature, as was no doubt the case with the one that “went into the field to gather herbs, and brought in a lapfull of wild gourds, and shred them in the pot.” (See Vine of Sodom). By some wild gourds are supposed to be the fruits of the squirting cucumber, Ecballium Elaterium, which is of the habit of the cucumber, devoid of tendrils, and therefore trails on the ground. It is a native of the South of Europe, and is as abundant as the colocynth. The fruit is about two inches in length, and resembles gherkins when ripe. It hangs downwards, forming nearly a right angle with the short foot-stalk. On being touched it suddenly parts from the foot-stalk, and with a jerk, attended with a slight noise, ejects a number of seeds and a liquid, often striking the unwary toucher in the face, and making him start with surprise. The juice is of a highly poisonous nature, but useful in medicine. There is nothing tempting in the appearance or smell of the fruit; it is, therefore, not at all probable that this formed the poison in the pot.
Vine of Sodom
“Their vine is of the vine of Sodom, and of the fields of Gomorrah: their grapes are grapes of gall, their clusters are bitter.”—Deut. 32:32; 145132For their vine is of the vine of Sodom, and of the fields of Gomorrah: their grapes are grapes of gall, their clusters are bitter: (Deuteronomy 32:32) B.C.
Much difference of opinion prevails as to what the plant is, spoken of in the above verse, the fruit of which has been by some writers termed the apples of Sodom. Of this, Josephus says, “Which fruits have a color as if they were fit to be eaten, but if you pluck them with your hands, they dissolve into smoke and ashes.” All speak of it as the fruit of a plant growing in the region of the Dead Sea. Canon Tristram says, “Observation of the relative abundance, and of the geographical distribution of the plants of the neighborhood of the Dead Sea, would lead me to the conclusion that the simile of the Vine of Sodom is taken from the fruit of the Colocynth (Citrullus Colocynthis), which has long, straggling tendrils or runners like the vine, with a fruit fair to look at, but nauseous beyond description to the taste, and, when fully ripe, merely a quantity of dusty powder with the seeds, inside its beautiful orange rind.”
Solanum sodomeum is also put forward as bearing those “Dead Sea fruits that tempt the eye, but turn to ashes on the lips.” It is abundant in the lower Jordan, and the region of the Dead Sea, especially near the remains of, what Josephus calls, the cities of Sodom. It is a rude-growing, stiff-branched shrub; its branches and leaves being furnished with spines of a red color. It grows to the height of four to five, or more, feet. Its flowers are like those of the potato; the fruit is about the size of a small apple, and, when ripe, of a yellowish color, fair to look at. The fruit is at first pulpy inside, but when ripe this pulp is dried up. On being pressed, the fruit emits what appears to be dust and ashes, or as Josephus says, “Smoke and ashes,” the supposed ashes being its seeds.
Another plant, Calotropis procera, has, by some observers, been considered to be the plant alluded to in the above verse. This appears, to us, to have less claim than either of the preceding, as it is not a vine, but a small tree, seldom exceeding the height of fifteen feet, having a corky bark, stiff branches, and large, oval, opposite leaves, the whole being full of milky juice It forms thickets in the region of the Dead Sea, and is common in India and Eastern Africa. It belongs to the family Asclepiadaceœ. Its fruit is about the size of an apple, of a soft texture. When ripe, it opens on one side by a slit, and is completely filled with fine, silky hairs, to which the seeds are attached. They expand like wool, and certainly cannot be called dust and ashes.
Cummin (Heb., Cammoin)
Cummin, Cuminum sativum, is an annual plant of the Umbel family. It is said to be a native of Egypt, but has been long cultivated in the south of Europe for the sake of its aromatic fruits, generally known as seeds, which are similar to carraway seeds, but larger. They are, however, not so agreeable in flavor, and consequently not are much used in this country. In Palestine, they are used as spice in many ways, and even mixed with meal for making bread.
Coriander (Bleb., Gad)
Coriandrum sativum is an annual plant of the Umbelliferous family, allied to Carraway and Dill, but differing from both in its fruit, called seeds, being globular. It is cultivated in this country for its aromatic fruits, which are principally used in confectionery; also in the South of Europe, Egypt, and Palestine.
Anise (Greek, Anethon)
“Woe unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites; for ye pay tithe of mint and anise and cummin, and have omitted the weightier matters of the law.”—Matt. 23:3333Ye serpents, ye generation of vipers, how can ye escape the damnation of hell? (Matthew 23:33) A.D.
The Greek word, Anethon, in the text, has been translated anise, which our early English botanists have given to a plant now known as Pimpinella Anisum. There is every reason to believe, however, that it was not the plant of which tithe was paid, that being Anethum graveolens, well known in this country as dill. It is a weedy, annual plant of the Umbelliferous family, having some resemblance to parsley. It is cultivated for the sake of its seeds, which are aromatic and carminative, similar to carraways.
It is used in cookery for flavoring dishes. Dill water is obtained from its seeds by distillation, and it contains an ethereal oil, used in medicine. It is found wild or is cultivated in many parts of the south of Europe, Egypt, and Palestine.
The other plant, Pimpinella Anisum, known in our gardens by the name of anise, is closely allied to dill both in appearance and properties. It is a native of Egypt, and is cultivated in the Levant and south of Europe for the sake of its seeds, which are used in confectionery. A well-known cordial, called aniseed, is also made from them.
Mint (Heb., Becaim)
Mint, Mentha, is a sweet-smelling plant, an extensive genus of herbaceous perennials, belonging to the family Labiatœ. The genus is represented in most countries throughout the North Temperate Zone, about a dozen species being natives of this country. They are all highly aromatic, Mentha piperita, peppermint, and M. viridis, spear-mint, being the most cultivated. The first yields, by distillation, peppermint water and oil of peppermint; the second being mostly used for culinary purposes. M. sylvestris, the horse mint, is common in Palestine, and is probably the mint spoken of in the text.
Fitches (Heb., Ketyaeh)
“When he hath made plain the face thereof (the ground), doth he not cast abroad the filches, and scatter the cummin?”.... “For the fitches are not threshed with a threshing instrument, neither is a cart-wheel turned about upon the cummin; but the fitches are beaten out with a staff, and the cummin with a rod.”—Isa. 28:25,27; 72525When he hath made plain the face thereof, doth he not cast abroad the fitches, and scatter the cummin, and cast in the principal wheat and the appointed barley and the rie in their place? (Isaiah 28:25)
27For the fitches are not threshed with a threshing instrument, neither is a cart wheel turned about upon the cummin; but the fitches are beaten out with a staff, and the cummin with a rod. (Isaiah 28:27) B.C.
The plant considered to be the fitches spoken of in the above verse, Nigella sativa, belongs to the Ranunculus family. It is an annual, a foot or more in height, having finely-cut fennel-like leaves, with white or light blue ranunculus like flowers, and a five-celled capsule containing numerous black seeds.
It grows wild in the south of Europe, Egypt, and Syria, in which countries it is also cultivated for its seeds, which have a strong, pungent, aromatic taste. In Palestine and Egypt they are greatly used for flavoring curries and other dishes, and spread over cakes like comfits. The Egyptian ladies use them to produce stoutness, considered by them a point of beauty.
The explanation of the text in Isaiah, which says, “But the fitches are beaten out with a staff, and the cummin with a rod,” is, that on account of the seeds of fitches being contained in a capsule, it requires a stronger staff to get out the seeds than the cummin, in which the seeds grow looser, and are readily separated. The seeds of both being small would be likely to be crushed if beaten out by any stronger instrument.
Besides N. sativa there are other species of the genus; N. damascena and N. arvensis, being cultivated in gardens. They are annuals, known by the vulgar name of “Devil in a Bush.”
Rue (Greek, Peganon)
There seems no reason for doubting that the plant of the text is the well-known rue of the present day, Ruta graveolens. It, as well as several other species of Ruta, is wild in Palestine, and abundant on Mount Tabor. It is also common in many parts of the south of Europe, and is cultivated in gardens for its virtues. It was held in high favor as a medicinal plant by the ancients, being for many ages considered a preventative of contagion. At the present day sprigs of it may frequently be seen before judges in courts of justice, and Shakespeare calls it “the herb of grace.”
Its repute is probably more due to its strong odor than to any active medicinal principle it contains. It is used by spirit dealers to impart a false flavor to spirits.
Ruta graveolens is a small bushy shrub, with winged glaucous leaves, attaining the height of two to three feet. It belongs to the Rue family, Rutacece, which contains not only herbs like the rue, but also trees and shrubs widely dispersed over the temperate and warm regions of the earth.
Wormwood (Heb., Laanah)
“Lest there should be among you a root that beareth gall and wormwood.”—Deut. 29:18; 1451 B.C. “But her end is bitter as wormwood.”—Prov. 5:4; 10004But her end is bitter as wormwood, sharp as a twoedged sword. (Proverbs 5:4) B.C. “Behold, I will feed them with wormwood, and make them drink the water of gall.”—Jer. 23:15; 59915Therefore thus saith the Lord of hosts concerning the prophets; Behold, I will feed them with wormwood, and make them drink the water of gall: for from the prophets of Jerusalem is profaneness gone forth into all the land. (Jeremiah 23:15) B.C. “He hath filled me with bitterness, he hath made me drunken with wormwood.”—Lam. 3:15; 58815He hath filled me with bitterness, he hath made me drunken with wormwood. (Lamentations 3:15) B.C.
These quotations are sufficient to show that wormwood is a bitter plant, and, no doubt, like the wormwood of the present day, belongs to the genus Artemisia, a genus of the Composite family, of which there are many species, dispersed over the northern and temperate zone, and occupying desert plains. Six of these are natives of Britain, represented by the common wormwood, Artemisia Absinthium, and the very common plant, A. vulgaris, known as mugwort. A. judoica and several others are natives of Palestine; they are generally perennials, some having firm hard stems, but not sufficient to be called shrubs. They are generally of a hoary aspect and of a strong aromatic odor, and all have a strong bitter taste, which readily accounts for wormwood being spoken of with gall as symbolical of bitter calamity.
In Switzerland, A. pontica furnishes a bitter abstract called Absinthe, of which thousands of gallons are annually consumed in France, especially in Paris; it first produces activity and pleasant sensations, and inspires grand ideas to the mind, which practically illustrates the text “He hath made me drunken with wormwood.” The habitual use of it, however, brings on a stupor and gradual diminution of the intellectual faculties, ending in delirium and death.
The flowers are occasionally used (or have been) in brewing, and impart an inebriating quality to ale.
Mustard (Greek, Sinapi)
The pungent condiment, well known by the name of mustard, is prepared by grinding the seeds of Sinapis alba and S. nigra, annual weedy plants belonging to the cabbage family, Cruciferœ. They are extensively cultivated in this and other countries for the sake of their seeds, which are not only ground for mustard, but also yield a useful oil, similar to colza oil, for which it was most probably cultivated in fields in Palestine at the time of our Saviour. As its properties and uses are not mentioned, and it is not noticed in the Old Testament, it becomes a question whether the mustard plant spoken of in the parable was the same as the plant we now call mustard. In general the mustard plant of this country does not exceed the height of 3 or 4 feet, but the parable says it is the “greatest among herbs and becometh a tree.”
In support of the common mustard, Sinapis nigra, becoming a tree, it has been described by some travelers in Palestine to be as high as a horse and rider, and even has been observed to attain the height of 10 to 15 feet. Lord Claude Hamilton says he saw it in Upper Egypt higher than he could reach, and with a stem as thick as a man’s arm. Although only an annual plant, its stem and branches in autumn become hard and rigid, and of quite sufficient strength to bear small birds who are attracted to it for its seeds.
Some writers, however, consider this not sufficient to warrant its being called a tree, which has led to another plant being suggested, namely, the Salvadora persica, a small tree of the family Salvadoraceœ, of which only a few species are known, natives of India, Ceylon, and Persia. S. persica is found as far north as latitude 31° in the hot valleys of the south end of the Dead Sea. It is a small, soft-wooded tree, with simple leaves, averaging about twenty-five feet in height. In Irby and Mangles’ Travels it is thus spoken of: “On leaving the shores of the Dead Sea, we saw a curious tree, which we observed in great plenty, and which bore a fruit in bunches resembling in appearance the currant, with the color of the plum. It has a pleasant, though strong, aromatic taste, exactly resembling mustard, and if taken in any quantity produces a similar irritation in the nose and eyes to that which is caused by taking mustard. The leaves of the tree have the same pungent flavor as the fruit, though not so strong.”
This statement, in conjunction with the present Arabic name of the tree, Khardal, which means mustard tree, has led Dr. Royle to consider it to be the tree alluded to in the parable. There is, however, much against this view, the Salvadora not being found so far north as Galilee (the climate there being too cold); it would, therefore, be unknown to the great multitude gathered round Christ when he spoke the parable on the Mount.
It is now considered by most commentators that the common mustard, Sinapis nigra, was the plant alluded to, but there is no collateral evidence in proof that it was used as a condiment by the Jews at the time of our Lord.
In 1827, a paper was published, entitled “Remarks on the Mustard Tree mentioned in the New Testament, by John Frost.” The author endeavors to prove, but upon no positive evidence of his own acquiring, that the Phytolacca dodecandra, is the mustard tree, but his opinion is not worth a moment’s consideration; he was a vain charlatan.
It is curious that another writer endeavors to show that this plant is the hyssop of the Bible (see Hyssop).
Rose of Jericho
In the Apocrypha, Wisdom is compared to a “Rose plant in Jericho.”—Eccl. 24:14.
In modern times a plant has received the name of “Rose of Jericho,” and on account of its singular nature has led some writers to consider that the two first verses have reference to it, and therefore can have nothing to do with the roses of our gardens. In botany it is called Anastatica Hierochuntica; it belongs to the cabbage family, Cruciferœ, and is allied to a weedy plant common in this country, known as swine’s cress (Senebiera Coronopus). It grows abundantly about Jericho, and throughout Syria and the regions of the Mediterranean. It is an annual, having a tap-root, from which numerous slender branches are produced, forming a circular disc about a foot in diameter, at first lying nearly flat on the ground. It has small leaves, and small white flowers at their axis. When the seeds are perfected, the stems become dry, hardened, and incurved, their points meeting, and forming a skeleton hollow ball, which in time (by the power of the wind) loses hold of the ground, and, being blown about, rolls and turns over like a wheel or rolling thing. This may therefore be accepted as an explanation of the above quotations from Psalms and Isaiah.
Dr. Thomson calls it the wild artichoke, and says, “When ripe and dry in autumn, these branches become rigid and light as a feather, the parent stem breaks off at the ground, and the wind carries these vegetable globes withersoever it pleaseth. At the proper season, thousands of them come scudding over the plain, rolling, leaping, bounding with vast racket, to the dismay both of the horse and his rider. Once, on the plain north of Hamath, my horse became quite unmanageable among them. They charged down upon us on the wings of the wind  ... If this is not the ‘wheel’ of David, and the ‘rolling thing’ of Isaiah, I have seen nothing in the country to suggest the comparison.”
On being wetted, the ball again expands; and thus, wet or dry alternately, it will retain its hygrometric property for a considerable time. This circumstance has led to its being held in superstitious veneration by the natives. It is called by the monks “Rose of Jericho,” and “Mary’s Flower,” the latter on account of its being said to have expanded at the birth of our Saviour.
In marginal Bibles, the “rolling thing before the whirlwind” is rendered “thistle-down;” but as thistle-down rises in the air, and is carried along by the wind, it cannot be called a rolling thing.
In recent years, other plants have been substituted, and sold in the curiosity shops of London as the “Rose of Jericho,” or “Resurrection plant,” such as the capsular fruit or seed vessel of several species of Fig Marigold (Mesembryanthemum), natives of the Cape of Good Hope; also of M. nodiflorum, a native of Palestine, growing abundantly in the neighborhood of the Dead Sea. Their fruits, when ripe, expand when wetted like the Anastatica, but they are small, not being more than an inch in diameter.
The most beautiful substitute for the “Rose of Jericho,” is Selaginella lepidophylla, a native of Mexico, growing flat in the form of a rosette, which when dry curls inwards like a ball, and when wetted again opens.
Mallows (Heb., Malluach)
“Who cut up mallows by the bushes, and juniper roots for their meat.”—Job 30:4; 15204Who cut up mallows by the bushes, and juniper roots for their meat. (Job 30:4) B.C.
No special plant can be positively determined on as the mallows of the above verse; but as different species of the genus malva are common in Palestine, growing by the road sides and waste places, in the same manner as M. sylvestris and M. rotundifolia do in this country, and as they are of a soft and mucilaginous nature, and not unwholesome, the mallows “cut up by the bushes” may have been some species of malva. It is, however, certain that these would only be eaten in times of great privation.
On account of the Hebrew word, malluach, meaning saltness, some commentators think it indicates a plant growing near the sea, or having a saltish taste; and as the Atriplex Halimus meets these two points, it is therefore considered to be the mallows. It is a strong-growing, bushy shrub, five or more feet in height, having simple, somewhat hoary leaves, and small inconspicuous flowers. It is abundant on the shores of the Mediterranean, and in the region of the Dead Sea, where it is said to attain the height of ten feet. It is, however, very questionable whether this hoary, truly littoral shrub, grew so far away from the sea as the “land of Uz,” the country of Job, which commentators suppose to have been situated in the east of Syria, near the Euphrates.
In Smith’s “Dictionary of the Bible,” under “Mallows,” is an extract from a work which says, that in 1600 Mr. William Biddulph was traveling from Aleppo to Jerusalem, and “saw many poor people gathering mallows and three-leaved grass, and asked them what they did with it, and they answered that it was all their food and they did eat it.” This is curious, as showing that it had been the custom for the poor to eat mallows since the time of Job, a period of over three thousand years.
We, however, believe the mallow is not the name of any special plant, but common to others with spinach-like qualities, such as different species of Chenopodium and Atriplex, of which there are a considerable number in Syria, most of them being annual, weedy plants, with soft, mucilaginous leaves. About twenty species are also natives of this country, and it is not uncommon for them to be eaten. Atriplex hortensis is even cultivated in gardens as a substitute for spinach.
Another plant, Corchorus olitorius, which belongs to the linden family Tiliaceœ, is by Celsius and Sprengel ranked as one of the plants called mallows, but this must be accepted as doubtful, as the species is a native of India; and although it is now cultivated in all warm countries for its young shoots, which are eaten as asparagus, and in Syria and Egypt, known by the name of Jews’ mallow, it is questionable whether it was cultivated in Syria in the time of Job. It is an annual, with simple, slender stems, the fiber of which, with C. capsularis, forms the jute of commerce. For their fiber both species are extensively cultivated in India, but especially the latter.
The “three-leaved grass” mentioned above may probably be the clover-like Trigonella, fœnum, grœcum, eaten in Egypt at the present day (see Leek).
Bitter Herbs
These words do not afford sufficient data to enable us to satisfactorily determine what in those days were the plants eaten as bitter herbs; we may reasonably suppose, however, that they were plants of the same nature and properties as those now commonly eaten with flesh meat, and called salads, the most common being the different sorts of lettuce, endive, young leaves of the chicory, dandelion, and sorrel. The first four belong to the order Compositœ, and contain a bitter principle; the latter is acid, and belongs to the family Polygonaceœ, which contains the buckwheat, dock, and rhubarb.
In their wild state they are weedy plants, and widely distributed over the northern hemisphere. Most of them being common in Egypt and Western Asia, it is reasonable to suppose that one or more of them might be the bitter herbs eaten at the Passover. At the present day these and many other bitter plants are eaten by the Arabs.
Spikenard (Heb., Nard.; Lat., Spica)
“While the king sitteth at his table, my spikenard sendeth forth the smell thereof.” – Song Of Sol. 1:12; 101412While the king sitteth at his table, my spikenard sendeth forth the smell thereof. (Song of Solomon 1:12) B.C. “Thy plants are an orchard of pomegranates, with pleasant fruits; camphire, with spikenard.” – Song Of Sol. 4:13; 101413Thy plants are an orchard of pomegranates, with pleasant fruits; camphire, with spikenard, (Song of Solomon 4:13) B.C. “There came a woman having an alabaster box of ointment of spikenard, very precious; and she brake the box, and poured it on His head.”—Mark 14:3; 333And being in Bethany in the house of Simon the leper, as he sat at meat, there came a woman having an alabaster box of ointment of spikenard very precious; and she brake the box, and poured it on his head. (Mark 14:3) A.D. “Then took Mary a pound of ointment of spikenard, very costly, and anointed the feet of Jesus, and wiped His feet with her hair; and the house was filled with the odor of the ointment.”—John 12:3; 333Then took Mary a pound of ointment of spikenard, very costly, and anointed the feet of Jesus, and wiped his feet with her hair: and the house was filled with the odor of the ointment. (John 12:3) A.D.
Spikenard has of late years been clearly ascertained to be the root and young stems before the leaves unfold of Nardostachys Jatamansi, which belongs to the family Valerianaceœ. It is a perennial herb, allied to the Valeriana officinalis of this country, but the roots have a much stronger and more pleasant scent; it is a native of Nepaul, Bootan, and other parts of the Himalayan mountains, extending into Western Asia. In India it is used as a perfume for the hair, and there is every reason to believe that the precious “ointment of spikenard” came from India. In ancient times it was a favorite with the ladies of Rome, but their ideas of perfumes must have been different from those of the ladies of modern times, for it is not now used, and the odor would by some be called disagreeable.
Valeriana officinalis is extensively collected in this country, and the roots are used for medical purposes; its scent is much inferior to that of Nardostachys Jatamansi. It is highly agreeable to cats, plants in gardens being often destroyed by their lying on and rolling over them.
Linnaeus has applied the word nard, nardus (Latin) to a genus of grasses of which there is only one species, N. stricta, a hard wiry grass, native of this country, growing in dry places, and known as mat grass, but has nothing to do with the nard of Solomon.
Galbanum (Heb., Cheldenah)
Galbanum is a gum obtained from several species of the Umbel family, allied to the genus Ferula (fennel), natives of Persia and Syria. We may therefore infer that the galbanum ordered to be used by the Israelites was a Syrian product, obtained probably from Ferula persica, now called F. galbaniflua; but as the particular species yielding the galbanum of the present day have not been well ascertained, it is impossible to determine the special plants from which the Israelites obtained their galbanum.
The plants producing galbanum are strong-rooted perennials, their flowering stem attaining the height of several feet, with alternate, partially-sheathing, finely-divided leaves, terminated by umbels of generally yellow flowers.
The gum is the natural exudations of the stem, or is obtained by cutting it across (when young) a few inches above the surface of the ground. The milky juice which exudes from the wound soon hardens, and forms one of the kinds of galbanum of commerce, that which exudes naturally being called grains or tears.
The odor of galbanum is strongly balsamic and pungent, when burnt emitting a not very agreeable odor, only inferior to assafœtida, the product of an allied species of Ferula.
The present use of galbanum is in medicine.
An allied plant, Bubon galbanum, a native of the Cape of Good Hope, also produces a kind of galbanum.
Mandrakes (Heb., Judith/1.)
Although there is no collateral evidence to assist in identifying the word mandrake as the name of a plant, it is now admitted by most commentators to be the plant known as Mandragora officinalis, a herbaceous perennial, of the Nightshade family, Solanaceœ, which also includes the potato and deadly nightshade. It has a large tap-root (which is sometimes forked), from which spring many lanceolate leaves, about a foot in length; these lie nearly flat on the ground, in the form of a rosette, from the center of which rise the flower-stalks, each bearing a single purple flower, in form similar to the flower of a potato, succeeded by a globose fruit somewhat larger than the ordinary sized potato apple, and of a yellowish color. When perfect the fruits lie in the center of the rosette of leaves like eggs in a nest, and contain a fleshy pulp, possessing a peculiar but not unpleasant smell, and a sweetish taste. M. officinalis is in some degree poisonous, but not to the extent of some of its allies, as belladonna and henbane. It is emetic, purgative, and narcotic, and in olden times was much used medicinally, its efficacy, however, depending more upon the superstitious notions regarding it (since the time of Reuben) than from its real value. The superstitions probably arose from its thick tap-roots having some resemblance to the lower part of the human body, which circumstance greatly aided to lead the ignorant to believe that it possessed the amorous properties ascribed to Reuben’s mandrakes, which properties have not been verified by modern experience.
As neither the flower or fruit of Mandragora officinalis “give a smell” pleasant or unpleasant, it is doubtful whether the mandrake mentioned in Canticles is the same plant as the mandrake of Reuben above described.
Josephus says, that in and before his time, it was held by the Jews in great superstition, as also by the Greeks, and “that he who would take up a plant thereof, must tie a dog thereunto to pull it up, otherwise if a man should do it, he should surely die in a short space after.” It is further stated that the dog after pulling it up dies. The ancient Romans also held the mandrake in superstitious awe, and considered it so potent and valuable a medicine that the mode of taking the root from the ground was made a special ceremony. The operator stood with his back to the wind, drew three circles round the root with the point of a sword, poured a libation on the ground, and turning to the west begun to dig it up. Gerard, in his Herbal, 1597, says, “There hath been many ridiculous tales brought up of this plant, whether of old wives, or some runagate surgeons, or physique mongers, I know not. They add, that it is never or very seldome to be found growing naturally, but under a gallows, where the matter that has fallen from a dead body hath given it the shape of a man, and the matter of a woman the substance of a female plant, with many other such doltish dreames.” And that the roots give a shriek when pulled out of the earth. Shakespeare says, “And shrieks like mandrakes torn out of the earth, that living mortals hearing them run mad.”
Mandragora officinalis is a native of the south of Europe and the Levant, and Hasselquist observed it near Nazareth. Dr. Thomson says he saw it most abundant on the lower ranges of Lebanon and Hermon. “The apples when ripe are of a pale yellow color, soft, and of an insipid sickish taste. They are said to produce dizziness, but I have seen people eat them without experiencing any such effect. The Arabs, however, believe them to be exhilarating and stimulating even to insanity; hence the name “apples of the jars” (evil spirits).
According to Turner’s list of herbs, it was introduced into the gardens of this country more than three hundred years ago; but not being common, has led to the thick roots of the white Bryony, B. alba, being substituted, and sold to the ignorant by quacks as mandrakes.
Sprengel and others suppose the mandrake to be a species of small gourd, Cucumus dudaim, a native of Syria and Egypt; but there is no more corroborative evidence to determine this as the Mandrake of Reuben than for Mandragora officinalis.
Saffron (Heb., Karkôm; Arabic, Zafran)
Saffron is the produce of several species of Crocus; it consists of the stigma and part of the style, which are collected, when the flower opens, chiefly by women and children.
The quantities of flowers gone over to supply the demand may be guessed, when it is stated that it requires at least 4,000 stigmas to make an ounce of fresh saffron. After gathering, they are either dried in the sun and pounded, or made into small cakes. In this country Saffron Walden was long celebrated for the production of saffron; the principal supply now comes from Spain, France, and Syria. It is principally used as a yellow dye, and also for coloring curries and stews. In the spring many parts of Palestine are brilliant with flowers of different kinds of Crocus. The Saffron Crocus is also collected in Cashmere and the Caucasus. Although there is no evidence to show that the saffron of the above verse is the produce of the Crocus, it may nevertheless be accepted as such.
Another kind of Saffron called Bastard Saffron is the red flowers (florets) of Carthamus tinctorius, an annual thistle-like spiny plant of the Composite family, extensively cultivated at the present day in China, India, Syria, Egypt, and Southern Europe, and considerable quantities are annually imported to this country under the name of safflower, chiefly used for dyeing silk, and for adulterating genuine saffron.
Hemlock (Heb., Rosh)
The plant known as hemlock in modern times is Conium maculation of botanists; it is a biennial plant, of the Umbel family, common in waste places in this country and throughout Europe. It attains the height of three or four feet, having a spotted stein and its branches terminating by umbels of white flowers, its leaves being much divided, like parsley. It is highly poisonous, but it cannot be termed bitter like gall; and as the Hebrew word translated hemlock is the same as that for gall, which, in other verses of the Bible, is mentioned with wormwood, and as it is not a weed “in the furrows of fields,” it is very doubtful whether the hemlock of the Bible is the same as that of the present day. By some it is supposed to be the poppy, which is as common in the cornfields of Palestine as it is in those of this country.
Cockle (Heb., Caoshah)
The plant known in this country as corn-cockle, Agrostemma Githago, is a strong-growing annual plant, of the Pink family Caryophyllaceœ, and is a troublesome weed in cornfields; it is, however, a question whether the Hebrew word translated cockle in our Bible means our corn-cockle. As the word Caoshah means “stink,” the Rev. H. Tristram thinks that it may include noxious and stinking weeds in general, and that it may be one of the Arum family (which are notorious for the carrion like odor of their flowers), of which several species are common in Palestine. Celsius supposes it to be the Aconite, but that is not probable, as it is not a cornfield weed.
Nettles
“Among the bushes they brayed; under the nettles (chârûl) they were gathered together.”—Job 30:7; 15207Among the bushes they brayed; under the nettles they were gathered together. (Job 30:7) B.C. “And, lo, it was all grown over with thorns, and nettles (chârûl) had covered the face thereof.”—Prov. 24: 31; 1000 B.C. “And thorns shall come up in her palaces, nettles (kîmmôsh) and brambles in the fortresses thereof.”—Isa. 34:13; 71313And thorns shall come up in her palaces, nettles and brambles in the fortresses thereof: and it shall be an habitation of dragons, and a court for owls. (Isaiah 34:13) B.C. “The pleasant places for their silver, nettles (kîmmôsh) shall possess them: thorns shall be in their tabernacles.”—Hos. 9:6; 7606For, lo, they are gone because of destruction: Egypt shall gather them up, Memphis shall bury them: the pleasant places for their silver, nettles shall possess them: thorns shall be in their tabernacles. (Hosea 9:6) B.C. “Surely Moab shall be as Sodom, and the children of Ammon as Gomorrah, even the breeding of nettles (chewed) and salt pits.”—Zeph. 2:9; 6309Therefore as I live, saith the Lord of hosts, the God of Israel, Surely Moab shall be as Sodom, and the children of Ammon as Gomorrah, even the breeding of nettles, and saltpits, and a perpetual desolation: the residue of my people shall spoil them, and the remnant of my people shall possess them. (Zephaniah 2:9) B.C.
On account of the above two Hebrew words being rendered nettles in our version of the Bible, commentators have been led into doubt as to the identification of the plants spoken of as nettles, but, as they are stated to grow with thorns and brambles in waste and ruined places, in the same manner as the well-known plants called stinging-nettles in this country, we may, therefore, admit that the nettles of the Bible were some species of the genus Urtica, of which four are recorded as natives of Palestine; U. dioica and U. pilulifera being common, often attaining the height of five or six feet. It is quite usual to see nettles growing upon ground that has been once cultivated, but is now neglected, and about ruined buildings, with which the words of Isaiah and Hosea agree.
Some exceptions, however, may be taken to the nettles of Job, for nettles do not usually grow in such places as are understood by the term wilderness. He also says, “Under the nettles they were gathered together;” if such were stinging-nettles, it is difficult to reconcile this with the act of even the evil doers, spoken of by Job.
The Rev. H. B. Tristram thinks that the nettles mentioned in Job and Zephaniah probably refer to the Acanthus spinosus, but there seems no good ground for this supposition, except that the Acanthus is a spiny-leaved, strong-growing, perennial plant.
Dr. Royle thinks that the nettles in the “field of the slothful” were the charlock or wild mustard, Sinapis arrensis, which makes many corn fields gay in summer with its yellow flowers; his ground for this is that the Arabic word for charlock, Khardul, is somewhat similar to the Hebrew word, chârûl, which is translated nettle, and may well answer for the nettles of the “field of the slothful” mentioned in Prov. 24:3030I went by the field of the slothful, and by the vineyard of the man void of understanding; (Proverbs 24:30).
Thistle
The word thistle is a general term for spiny plants, well known as troublesome weeds in corn fields and cultivated lands in general. In the Bible two Hebrew words have been translated thistles, choach and dardar. In the Old Testament the latter word occurs twice, and is translated thistles, as it is also in our version of the New Testament; but in the Greek it is rendered tribulus, such being the name of a spiny-fruited plant, quite distinct in its mode of growth from the plants we call thistles. We, therefore, consider it best to notice them separately under their respective Hebrew names.
1. Thistles (Heb., Choach)
Thistles are annual, biennial, and some of them perennial plants, having prickly stems, leaves, and flower-heads; they belong to the Composite family, and there are about 200 different kinds described in books; they are widely spread throughout the Northern Hemisphere, especially in the temperate zone. About a dozen or more species are natives of this country, and chiefly belong to the genus Carduus; C. arvensis and C. lanceolatus being great pests in pastures and corn-fields. Other rude growing, prickly, weedy plants may be also classed with thistles, as, for example, in this country, Centaurea Calcitrapa, a formidable weed in corn-fields. This latter, with its more formidable ally, C. venustum, is also common in Palestine; the stems and leaves, however, are not spiny, the spines being confined to the flower-heads, the scales of the involucrum which encloses the florets terminating in hard, stiff spines an inch and a half in length. In the spring, some parts of the Plain of Sharon are covered with thistles of a gigantic size, and the milk thistle, Carduus Marianas, appears everywhere. Although thistles are not (or but sparingly) indigenous to the Southern Hemisphere, they have, nevertheless, within the last hundred years, by the agency of European civilization, become established in many regions. They are truly usurpers of the soil, and, as such, are favored by nature, their pappus being carried in the air to great distances. On whatever soil these fall, that is at all favorable to plant life, a colony of thistles appears, the original holders of the soil disappearing before them. The Pampas of South America, once grassy plains, have become a forest of thistles; and in the Cape of Good Hope, Australia, and New Zealand they have become pests to the cultivator.
2. Thistles (Heb., Dardar.; Greek, Tribulus)
In our version of the New Testament the Hebrew word dardar, in Matthew, is rendered thistles, but in the Septuagint it is rendered tribulus, which means to tear; and the French botanist, Tournefort, has adopted the word as the name of a prickly plant, T. terrestris. This has led to the supposition that the dardar of the New Testament should be referred to this plant, but as the tribulus is not so common as thistles, and as there is nothing to prove that the dardar of Genesis was Tribulus, we may admit that the word may refer to thistle-like prickly plants in general. Tribulus terrestris is a low, trailing, annual plant, having several pairs of conjugate leaves, and bearing a capsular spiny fruit. When perfect, the spines become very hard, and, lying on the ground, are a great annoyance to the incautious traveler-hence the English name, Caltrops.
The genus Tribulus belongs to Zygophyllaceœ or bean-caper family, an order which contains 100 or more species; they consist of low, bushy plants, with succulent leaves, Balanites œgyptiaca probably being the largest (see Balm). Many of them are plants of the desert, Zygophyllum Fabago forming a special feature in the barren tracts of Palestine, bordering the Mediterranean and Dead Sea, as does also Tribulus terrestris.
Flax (Heb., Gristah)
“And the flax and the barley was smitten: for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was bolled.”—Ex. 9:31; 149131And the flax and the barley was smitten: for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was bolled. (Exodus 9:31) B.C. “But she had brought them up to the roof of the house, and hid them with the stalks of flax, which she had laid in order upon the roof.”—Jos. 2:6; 14516But she had brought them up to the roof of the house, and hid them with the stalks of flax, which she had laid in order upon the roof. (Joshua 2:6) B.C. “Moreover they that work in fine flax, and they that weave net-works, shall be confounded.”—Isa. 19:9; 7149Moreover they that work in fine flax, and they that weave networks, shall be confounded. (Isaiah 19:9) B.C.
The flax plant, Linun usitatissimum, is a slender, wiry-stemmed annual, attaining the height of about 3 feet, having small, simple, alternate leaves, and terminating by several pretty blue flowers, succeeded by five-celled capsules about the size of a pea. These capsules are called bolls; and the expression, “The flax was bolled,” means that it had arrived at a state of maturity. When the bolls are ripe, the flax is pulled, and tied in bundles; and, in order to assist the separation of the fiber from the stalks, the bundles are placed in water for several weeks, and then spread out to dry. This explains the words, “Which she had laid in order upon the roof.”
The cultivation of flax is of great antiquity, as is shown by the representations of its cultivation and preparation on the sculptured tombs of Egypt; it is found, too, that the mummy cloth of the tombs is made of flax, and flax fiber has been found in the prehistoric lake cities of Switzerland.
Flax has continued to be grown from the earliest times in most countries of the Northern Hemisphere, thriving as well in the north of Russia as in the Valley of the Nile. It is cultivated in this country, but more extensively in Ireland. The supply, however, falls far short of the demand; and large quantities are imported from Russia and other parts of Europe, as well as from the United States. The seeds under the name of Linseed are also an important article of commerce, shiploads being brought from the Russian ports on the Black Sea, and from the Baltic. These, by crushing, yield linseed oil, while the refuse is compressed, and made into oil-cake, extensively used for feeding cattle. The fibers are formed into twine and rope of all sizes, and also into woven fabrics, from the finest linen to sacking cloth.
The genus Linum, of which there are about 80 species, belongs to the family Linaceœ, chiefly natives of the Northern Hemisphere, one extending to New Zealand. Several are cultivated as ornamental greenhouse and flower garden plants.
Linen
In our version of the Bible, the words linen, fine linen, and linen yarn, are translated from five different Hebrew words, shêsh, bad, buts, etûn, and mikvêh, and one Greek word, byssos.
“And Pharaoh took off his ring from his hand, and put it upon Joseph’s hand, and arrayed him in vestures of fine linen” (Heb., shêsh).—Gen. 41:42; 171542And Pharaoh took off his ring from his hand, and put it upon Joseph's hand, and arrayed him in vestures of fine linen, and put a gold chain about his neck; (Genesis 41:42) B.C. “And all the women that were wise hearted did spin with their hands, and brought that which they had spun, both of blue, and of purple, and of scarlet, and of fine linen” (Heb., shêsh).—Ex. 35:25; 149125And all the women that were wise hearted did spin with their hands, and brought that which they had spun, both of blue, and of purple, and of scarlet, and of fine linen. (Exodus 35:25) B.C. “And thou shalt make them linen (Heb., bad) breeches.”—Ex. 28:42; 149142And thou shalt make them linen breeches to cover their nakedness; from the loins even unto the thighs they shall reach: (Exodus 28:42) B.C. “And David was clothed with a robe of fine linen” (Heb., buts)—1 Chr. 15:27; 104227And David was clothed with a robe of fine linen, and all the Levites that bare the ark, and the singers, and Chenaniah the master of the song with the singers: David also had upon him an ephod of linen. (1 Chronicles 15:27) B.C. “I have decked my bed with coverings of tapestry, with carved works, with fine linen (Win) of Egypt.”—Pro. 7:16; 100016I have decked my bed with coverings of tapestry, with carved works, with fine linen of Egypt. (Proverbs 7:16) B.C. “And Solomon had horses brought out of Egypt, and linen yarn” (Heb., mikvêh,).—1 Kings 10:28; 99228And Solomon had horses brought out of Egypt, and linen yarn: the king's merchants received the linen yarn at a price. (1 Kings 10:28) B.C.
As cotton was not known in Egypt at the time Pharaoh clothed Joseph, or even in the time of Solomon, and as flax was cultivated, there is no doubt but that the linen was the woven fiber of flax, first made into thread by the women with the distaff and spindle, as stated in Pro. 31:19; 101519She layeth her hands to the spindle, and her hands hold the distaff. (Proverbs 31:19) B.C.; we do not, however, learn how the blue and scarlet and fine linen were woven into fabric and dyed; but, as the people, when ordered to make the curtains for the tabernacle, had only been a short time out of Egypt, and were then in the wilderness, we must conclude that they carried the flax yarn, weaving loom, and dyeing materials out of Egypt with them.
As there is no mention of hemp, or any other fiber plant, having been cultivated in Egypt, or afterward by the Jews in Palestine, it must be inferred that linen in various qualities was a common article of dress, and was in general use for all domestic purposes, as also for sails and tackle of ships, as we read, “Fine linen (shêsh), with broidered work from Egypt was that which thou spreadest forth to be thy sail.”—Eze. 27:7; 5887Fine linen with broidered work from Egypt was that which thou spreadest forth to be thy sail; blue and purple from the isles of Elishah was that which covered thee. (Ezekiel 27:7) B.C.
The vegetable dyes known at that time in Egypt, appear to have been the henna, which furnished the yellow; the madder, the red of various shades; and the indigo, the blue. The latter being cultivated in India, the Egyptians must have obtained it by commerce. These, with metal and earthy substances variously mixed, furnish the principal different colors.
Cord
The words cord, rope, and string occur about twenty times in the Bible: they are translated from several different words, and were used for the same variety of purposes as at the present day. With the exception of what is contained in the following verses we have no information of what material these articles were made. No doubt the hides of camels and other animals were used (as they are by the Bedouin Arabs of the present day), also twisted reeds, rushes, withies, and twigs of willows and other trees. “And Samson said unto her, If they bind me with seven green withs that were never dried, then shall I be weak.”—Jud. 16:7; 1120 B.C. “Moreover they that work in fine flax, and they that weave networks, shall be confounded.”—Isa. 19:9; 7149Moreover they that work in fine flax, and they that weave networks, shall be confounded. (Isaiah 19:9) B.C. In John 2:15; 3015And when he had made a scourge of small cords, he drove them all out of the temple, and the sheep, and the oxen; and poured out the changers' money, and overthrew the tables; (John 2:15) A.D., we read “And when he had made a scourge of small cords (Greek, schoenus), he drove them all out of the temple.” And in Acts 27:32; 6232Then the soldiers cut off the ropes of the boat, and let her fall off. (Acts 27:32) A.D.: “Then the soldiers cut off the ropes (Greek, schoenus) of the boat, and let her fall off.” It is presumed from the Greek word schoenus that the scourge and ropes here mentioned were made of a kind of grass.
Schoenus was adopted by Linnوus as the generic name for certain species of Cyperaceœ, all of which family are known by the English name of Sedge grasses. One species of Schoenus, S. nigricans, is a native of Britain.
Cotton (Heb., Carpas)
The word cotton does not appear in our version of the Bible, and there is no evidence to show when it became known in Palestine; but according to Pausanias, who wrote 480 B.C., it appears to have been then cultivated, for he says that the cotton of Judea was of a yellower hue than that of Egypt and other places. It is probable that cotton fabric became known to the Jews during their captivity in Persia, under king Ahasuerus, who, it is said, reigned from India to Ethiopia; for in the book of Esther, chapter 1:5-6; 521 B.C., we read, “In the court of the garden of the king’s palace, where were white, green (carpas), and blue hangings, fastened with cords of fine linen.” The word green, according to Celsius, properly translated, should read cotton—“Where were hangings of white and violet-colored cotton.” This was 520 years B.C., and as cotton had been long previous to that cultivated and woven into fabric in India, there is no doubt it was known in Persia in the time of Esther. Herodotus, writing 500 years B.C., says that the Indians had a plant that bore, instead of fruit, a wool like that of sheep, but finer and better, of which they made clothes. Theophrastus, 300 B.C., speaks of it as growing in Ethiopia; it also appears by that time to have become known in Egypt. Its cultivation gradually increased, and it now forms one of the staple articles of commerce of Egypt and Palestine.
The cotton plant was not only early cultivated in India, for on the discovery of America by Columbus in 1492 A.D., it was found to be used by the Indians in Cuba. Cortez and Pizarro found that the cotton plant was utilized in Mexico.
The cotton plant (Gossypium) belongs to the Mallow family; there are several different species, G. herbaceum being the original East Indian type, of which there are several varieties grown. Under cultivation, it is treated as an annual; but, if left alone, it assumes the character of a shrub, varying from 2 or 3 to 6 feet in height; the leaves are alternate, heart-shaped, partially lobed, and of a soft texture; the flowers are very showy, being yellow, pink, or red; the fruit is a three or five-celled, valved capsule, about the size and shape of a fig, and when mature it bursts through the middle of each cell, presenting a mass of fine white filaments (cotton), to which the seeds are attached.