This Division includes all plants with hard, woody, permanent stems and branches, from small bushes to lofty trees.
Trees
The word tree comprehends all plants having single, hard-wooded stems, growing from a few to 100 or more feet in height; but, on account of some kinds of bushes often assuming the characters of trees, it is difficult to determine the correct number of true trees indigenous to Palestine. Probably they do not exceed fifty, of which thirty are mentioned by special names in the Bible. These will be found noticed in their respective places in this work. Among the largest are the cedar of Lebanon, fir, cypress, oaks, elms, maple, walnut, plane, and terebinth, which form the principal natural woods and forest of Palestine. The terms woods and forests are mentioned more than a dozen times in the Bible, and may be considered synonymous, the distinction depending on the area occupied by trees growing contiguous to one another, woods varying in size from a few to one hundred or more acres (such as are called, in this country, Parks), while forests occupy extensive districts of countries, on plains and mountains. Timber and wood, that is, trees cut down, are also mentioned many times in the Bible, and, the reading of the respective verses, shows that they were used for the same purposes as now. The words tree and trees also occur frequently and are in many cases spoken of in a figurative and symbolical sense.
Some commentators consider the word eshel to be a special tree, and to mean the tamarisk, of which there are several species in Palestine, varying considerably in size. The common tamarisk, T. gallica, is not only common throughout the coasts of Europe, but also on the opposite shores of the Mediterranean, and in Palestine, in the Valley of the Jordan, and about the Dead Sea, while T. mannifera abounds in the Desert (see Manna). Others, such as T. orientalis and T. Pallasii, attain the size of trees. The Rev. H. B. Tristram says that the lower banks of the Jordan are fringed with a dense mass of the latter species. In the hilly country, he says, they form graceful trees, with long, feathery branches and tufts, closely clad with the minutest of leaves, and surmounted in spring with spikes of beautiful pink blossoms, which seem to envelope the whole tree in one gauzy sheet of color; the blossoms have the appearance of catkins, and the growth of the tree is something like that of the Arbor Vitæ of our shrubberies. He saw large numbers of the eastern Tamarisk (T. orientalis) on the banks below the site of Jabesh Gilead, where the bodies of Saul and Jonathan were laid. This leads to the supposition that it was under a tamarisk tree that they were buried; but, in Chronicles, it is said to be under an oak (elah) (see Oak). If the word eshel does not mean Tamarisk, there is no allusion to these beautiful trees in the Bible.
Grove
In our version of the Bible two Hebrew words, eshel and asherah, have been translated grove; the first word, eshel, as shown above, has also been translated trees. “Abraham planted a grove (eshel) in Beersheba, and called there on the name of the Lord.”—Gen. 21:33; 189133And Abraham planted a grove in Beer-sheba, and called there on the name of the Lord, the everlasting God. (Genesis 21:33) B.C.
In this country, the word grove is a familiar name for trees planted in rows or thickets, with open spaces or glades between them, thus affording shade and solitude for contemplation and worship of the true God. This was the use made by Abraham of his grove. After this, we find Moses exhorting the people not to follow the idolatrous practice of the nations then inhabiting the land of Canaan. “But ye shall destroy their altars, break their images,, and cut down their groves (asherah).”—Ex. 34:13; 149113But ye shall destroy their altars, break their images, and cut down their groves: (Exodus 34:13) B.C. “Thou shalt not plant thee a grove of any trees near unto the altar of the Lord thy God.”—Deut. 16:21; 145121Thou shalt not plant thee a grove of any trees near unto the altar of the Lord thy God, which thou shalt make thee. (Deuteronomy 16:21) B.C. Judging by the words of these verses, we are led to infer that groves had become places for the worship of idols. “And the children of Israel did evil in the sight of the Lord, and forgat the Lord their God, and served Baalim, and the groves.”—Judg. 3:7; 14067And the children of Israel did evil in the sight of the Lord, and forgat the Lord their God, and served Baalim and the groves. (Judges 3:7) B.C. “For they also built them high places, and images, and groves, on every high hill, and under every green tree.”—1 Kings 14:23; 97223For they also built them high places, and images, and groves, on every high hill, and under every green tree. (1 Kings 14:23) B.C. “Now therefore send, and gather-to me all Israel unto mount Carmel, and the prophets of Baal four hundred and fifty, and the prophets of the groves four hundred, which eat at Jezebel’s table.”—1 Kings 18:19; 90619Now therefore send, and gather to me all Israel unto mount Carmel, and the prophets of Baal four hundred and fifty, and the prophets of the groves four hundred, which eat at Jezebel's table. (1 Kings 18:19) B.C. “And they left all the commandments of the Lord their God, and made them molten images, even two calves, and made a grove, and worshipped all the host of heaven, and served Baal.”—2 Kings 17:16; 72116And they left all the commandments of the Lord their God, and made them molten images, even two calves, and made a grove, and worshipped all the host of heaven, and served Baal. (2 Kings 17:16) B.C.
We learn that the worship of idols in “high places” was practiced up to the end of Bible History, and relics of it are still met with in Palestine at the present day. The Rev. Dr. Thomson, in his history of Palestine, entitled “The Land and the Book,” says, “Every conspicuous hilltop has a Willey or mazar, beneath a spreading oak, to which people pay religious visits, and thither they go up to worship and to discharge vows. All sects in the country, without exception, have a predilection for these ‘high places,’ as strong as that of the Jews in ancient times ... .. “There is one of these high places, with its grove of venerable oaks, on the very summit of Lebanon, east of Jezzin. It is of an oval shape, corresponding to the top of the mountain, and the grove was planted regularly round its outer edge.” He mentions another grove on Lebanon, as being “resorted to by Jews, wild Arabs of the desert, Moslems, Metawelies, and Christians.” In the following verse the word grove requires to be differently explained. “And he brought out the grove from the house of the Lord, without Jerusalem, unto the brook Kidron, and burned it at the brook Kidron, and stamped it small to powder, and cast the powder thereof upon the graves of the children of the people.”—2 Kings 23:6; 6246And he brought out the grove from the house of the Lord, without Jerusalem, unto the brook Kidron, and burned it at the brook Kidron, and stamped it small to powder, and cast the powder thereof upon the graves of the children of the people. (2 Kings 23:6) B.C. The words “and he brought out the grove from the house of the Lord,” and so on clearly show that living trees could could not be meant.
The learned Gesenius identifies the word Asheerah, translated grove, with Ashtarte or Asteroth, the wife of Baal, who was symbolically represented in the form of a tree, as shown on the sculptured walls of the ruins of Nineveh. Admitting this to be correct, we see the representative groves could readily be taken out and destroyed.
The inscription on the sarcophagus found in the tomb of king Ashmunazer at Sidon, in 1855, shows that Ashteroth was the goddess of the Sidonians.
Judging from all that has been written on the subject, it appears that trees were worshipped by man in ancient times. This, indeed, continues to be the case with all heathen nations to the present day, each great religious sect having some special tree or group of trees which they venerate, and consider as emblematical of the Deity.
Oak
In our version of the Bible the word oak occurs more than a dozen times, and is translated from six different Hebrew words, namely, êl, êlon, îlan, allah, allôn, and elâh.
“And Jacob hid them under the oak (elâh) which was by Shechem.”—Gen. 35:4; 17324And they gave unto Jacob all the strange gods which were in their hand, and all their earrings which were in their ears; and Jacob hid them under the oak which was by Shechem. (Genesis 35:4) B.C. “And she was buried beneath Bethel under an oak: and the name of it was called Allonbachuth.”—Gen. 35:88But Deborah Rebekah's nurse died, and she was buried beneath Beth-el under an oak: and the name of it was called Allon-bachuth. (Genesis 35:8). “And Absalom rode upon a mule, and the mule went under the thick boughs of a great oak (elah), and his head caught hold of the oak.”—2 Sam. 18:9; 10239And Absalom met the servants of David. And Absalom rode upon a mule, and the mule went under the thick boughs of a great oak, and his head caught hold of the oak, and he was taken up between the heaven and the earth; and the mule that was under him went away. (2 Samuel 18:9) B.C. “And upon all the cedars of Lebanon, that are high lifted up, and upon all the oaks of Bashan.”—Isa. 2:13; 76013And upon all the cedars of Lebanon, that are high and lifted up, and upon all the oaks of Bashan, (Isaiah 2:13) B.C. “Of the oaks of Bashan have they made thine oars.” Ezek. 27:6; 5886Of the oaks of Bashan have they made thine oars; the company of the Ashurites have made thy benches of ivory, brought out of the isles of Chittim. (Ezekiel 27:6) B.C. “They sacrifice upon the tops of the mountains, and burn incense upon the hills, under oaks and poplars, and elms, because the shadow thereof is good.”—Hos. 4:13; 78013They sacrifice upon the tops of the mountains, and burn incense upon the hills, under oaks and poplars and elms, because the shadow thereof is good: therefore your daughters shall commit whoredom, and your spouses shall commit adultery. (Hosea 4:13) B.C.
It is considered by some that these six words are not only the Hebrew for oaks, but also for large or “thick trees,” and Professor Celsius has endeavored to show that five of these words stand for the terebinth tree, alloy, alone denoting the true oak; but, on account of the different views of authors, it is quite impossible to clear up this point, and, there being a number of different kinds of oaks in Palestine, it is probable that the words in the texts are not restricted to one kind of oak only. The Rev. H. B. Tristram says, “Probably allôn stands for the evergreen oak, and êlôn for the deciduous sorts.”
In Gen. 12:66And Abram passed through the land unto the place of Sichem, unto the plain of Moreh. And the Canaanite was then in the land. (Genesis 12:6), and Deut. 11:3030Are they not on the other side Jordan, by the way where the sun goeth down, in the land of the Canaanites, which dwell in the champaign over against Gilgal, beside the plains of Moreh? (Deuteronomy 11:30), we read of the plain of Moreh; and, in Gen. 13:1818Then Abram removed his tent, and came and dwelt in the plain of Mamre, which is in Hebron, and built there an altar unto the Lord. (Genesis 13:18), “Then Abram removed his tent and came and dwelt in the plain of Mamre, which is in Hebron.” “And the Lord appeared unto him in the plains of Mamre.”—Gen. 18:11And the Lord appeared unto him in the plains of Mamre: and he sat in the tent door in the heat of the day; (Genesis 18:1) and, in Judg. 9:66And all the men of Shechem gathered together, and all the house of Millo, and went, and made Abimelech king, by the plain of the pillar that was in Shechem. (Judges 9:6), “Made Abimelech king by the plain of the pillar that was in Shechem.” In these texts the Hebrew word Sion is translated plain, which, according to the best authorities, should be read oak, and the plains of Moreh and Mamre are so named from the trees that grew there, which are supposed to have been oaks. Dr. Thomson says, “I do not believe that Abraham’s celebrated tree at Hebron was a terebinth. It is now a very venerable oak, and I saw no terebinth in the neighborhood.”
If the word elâh means terebinth tree, which some assert, then it must have been one of those trees that caught Absalom by the hair. With regard to this, Dr. Thomson says, “The tree in which Absalom was caught was the alah, not the allon, and I am persuaded that it was an oak. That battle field was on the mountains east of the Jordan, always celebrated for great oaks — not for terebinths; and this is true to this day. There is no such thing in this country as a terebinth wood. It was an oak I firmly believe. There are thousands of such trees still in the same country, admirably suited to catch the long-haired rebels; but no terebinths. I see it asserted by the advocates of this translation that the oak is not a common nor a very striking tree in this country, implying that the terebinth is. A greater mistake could scarcely be made, It is ‘simply ridiculous’ to compare its strength and size with that of the oak.”
With regard to the oak forests, he says, “Besides the-vast groves around us, at the north of Tabor, and in Lebanon and Hermon, in Gilead and Bashan, think of the great forests, extending thirty miles at least, along the hills west of Nazareth, over Carmel, and down south, beyond Cesarea Palestina. The terebinth is deciduous, and therefore not a favorite shade tree. It is very rarely planted in the courts of houses, or over tombs, or in the places of resort in villages. It is the beautiful evergreen oak that you find there (Quercus pseudo-coccifera). Beyond a doubt, the idolatrous groves so often mentioned in Hebrew history were of oak.”
Dr. (now Sir Joseph) Hooker, who visited Palestine in 1860, described three kinds of oak, namely, Quercus pseudo-coccifera, Q. infectoria, and Q. Ægilops. They, however, vary so much in habit and in the form of the leaves in different localities, or even on different sides of the same tree, that it has led to many of the forms being described by different authors as distinct species; he says the most conspicuous is Quercus pseudococcifera. “It covers the rocky hills of Palestine with a dense brushwood of trees, from 8 to 12 feet high, branching from the base, thickly covered with small, evergreen, rigid leaves, and bearing acorns copiously; it seldom grows to a large tree, except in the valley of the Lebanon, or where growing by itself as the tree of Mamre.”
Q. Ægilops is a deciduous species, abundant in the North of Palestine, and forming mountain forests; in Bashan it attains a large size, and is, no doubt, the “oak of Bashan” spoken of in Isaiah. It bears very large acorns, which the Arabs use as food. The cups in which the acorns are contained form an extensive article of trade under the name of Valonia. They are used in tanning leather, dyeing, and in making ink.
Q. infectoria is a small deciduous tree, seldom exceeding 20 feet in height, and is much less common than the two preceding species It is, however, important, as producing the best galls, which are an extraneous growth on the leaves and twiggy branches, caused by the puncture of a small insect of the Cynips family, similar to the galls or “oak apples” produced on the leaves of the oak in this country; they form an important article of trade, and are used for similar purposes to the Valonia.
Besides these, Dr. Hooker also states that in the middle and higher regions grow Quercus Cerris, known as the Turkey oak, Q. Ehrenbergi or castanœfolia, Q. Toza, Q. Libani, and Q. mannifera. The latter, perhaps, is not distinct from Q. Robur and Q. sessiliflora, the two varieties of English oak.
According to the Bible, the oak appears to have been respected and venerated for its large size and strength, and honored as a place of burial (under its shade) for great men. The word el means strength or mighty, and is therefore equivalent to the word Robur, a name given originally by Pliny to the Querns Robur, our English oak, which is famed for strength.
The oak of Mamre mentioned above is said to stand on the spot where grew the tree under which Abraham entertained the three angels (Gen. 18:88And he took butter, and milk, and the calf which he had dressed, and set it before them; and he stood by them under the tree, and they did eat. (Genesis 18:8)). The original tree is, however, considered by most commentators not to have been an oak but a terebinth tree (see Terebinth).
The present tree, Quercus pseudo-coccifera is one of the finest oaks in Palestine. Dr. Boner describes it as follows: “We soon reached Abraham’s tree. It is a magnificent Ballût or prickly oak, somewhat isolated, yet with other trees not far off. The protruding knots of root at its base looked almost like pieces of dark brown rock. The stem is enormous; and as rough and shapeless as can be fancied. The branches, spreading widely in several detachments, and with their extremities drooping to the sward, throw their shade over a vast circle.” (February, 1856). It is of moderate height, its trunk measuring twenty-three feet in girth, the spread of its branches being ninety feet. It is held in high veneration, and it is believed that if any person cuts or maims it, he would lose his first-born son. In the winter of 1850 it suffered the loss of a large limb, through a heavy fall of snow, and the fear of touching it rendered it difficult to obtain people to assist in removing it. A sprig of this famed tree, bearing a few leaves and acorns, was brought home by Dr. Hooker, and is to be seen at the Museum at Kew.
In the History of Susanna in the Apocrypha, we read the words “Under a holm tree,” but there is nothing to lead us to determine the tree so called. Some suppose it to be the holly, Ilex Aquifolium, which has in modern times received the name of holm tree; but the holly is not recorded as a native of Syria. On account of the leaves of the evergreen oak, Quercus Ilex and Q. coccifera, being prickly like those of the holly, one or other or both of them have also been called the holm oak.
The “Mastick tree” is also mentioned in connection with the story of Susanna, for which see Balm.
Turpentine Tree, Terebinth
“As the turpentine tree, I stretched out my branches, and my branches are as the branches of honor and grace.”—Eccles. 24:16. B.C. (Apocrypha).
The original word in the above verse is terebinth, which in our version has been translated turpentine tree (a name not mentioned in any other part of the Bible), which is supposed by most commentators to be one of the trees called by the Hebrew name elâh, and some suppose it to be the elâh of Isa. 6:1313But yet in it shall be a tenth, and it shall return, and shall be eaten: as a teil tree, and as an oak, whose substance is in them, when they cast their leaves: so the holy seed shall be the substance thereof. (Isaiah 6:13), translated in our version “teil tree.” This, however, seems to be more properly referable to the elm tree, which see. It appears that in the time of Josephus a tree was called turpentine; he says, “There is shown at a distance of six furlongs from the city (Hebron) a very large turpentine tree, and the report goes that the tree has continued ever since the creation of the world.” It is also said that the captive Jews were sold under it by Titus Vespasian, 69 A.D. This is supposed to be the tree under which Abraham entertained the three angels.—Gen. 18:88And he took butter, and milk, and the calf which he had dressed, and set it before them; and he stood by them under the tree, and they did eat. (Genesis 18:8). It disappeared about 330 A.D., and its place was taken by an oak. (See Oak).
In the “Scripture Herbal,” the elâh of Isaiah, translated teil tree as above stated, is said to be the lime tree, Tilia europœa; but this it cannot be, as the lime tree is not found in Palestine. The terebinth tree, Pistacia Terebinthus, belongs to the family of Terebinthaceœ. It is a large tree, having, when destitute of leaves and seen from a distance, much the appearance of an oak. Its winged leaves are similar to those of the ash, but are smaller and of a reddish-green color. Every part of the tree contains a fragrant resinous juice. It is common in Palestine, generally growing solitary, and seldom in thickets or forests. Being a tree of considerable size and longevity, it was, no doubt, like the oak, venerated in early times. It is also common in the Greek islands, and along the coasts of the Mediterranean generally. It is known by the name of turpentine tree from its yielding the Chio turpentine of commerce, which is obtained by making incisions in the stem and branches. As it is a native of Gilead, it is quite probable that its resinous juice formed part of the spicery which the Ishmaelites carried into Egypt.
Elm (Heb., Elâh; Greek, Ptelea), Teil Tree (Heb., Elâh; Greek, Ptelea)
“As a teil tree, and as an oak, whose substance is in them, when they cast their leaves.”—Isa. 6:13; 75813But yet in it shall be a tenth, and it shall return, and shall be eaten: as a teil tree, and as an oak, whose substance is in them, when they cast their leaves: so the holy seed shall be the substance thereof. (Isaiah 6:13) B.C. “And burn incense upon the hills, under oaks and poplars and elms, because the shadow thereof is good.”—Hos. 4:13; 78013They sacrifice upon the tops of the mountains, and burn incense upon the hills, under oaks and poplars and elms, because the shadow thereof is good: therefore your daughters shall commit whoredom, and your spouses shall commit adultery. (Hosea 4:13) B.C.
The Hebrew word elâh is, in our Bible, translated teil tree, oak, plane tree, and elm. In the original Greek, the elâh of these two verses is rendered Ptelea, the Greek name for the elm tree, therefore the English rendering elms in Hosea may be considered correct. The word Ptelea means a wing, the fruit of the elm tree being winged, in botany termed a samara. It would have been well if Linnæus had adopted Ptelea as the generic name of that tree, instead of the Celtic name, Ulmus; he, however, applied the name to a small tree, a native of North America, Ptelea trifoliata, belonging to the family Xanthoæylaceœ, the fruit of which is also winged. Dropping the P, and substituting an i for e, makes the word Tilia, which he gives for the generic name of the lime or linden, the well known Tilia europœa. This has led the authoress of the “Scripture Herbal” to adopt the lime tree as the “teil tree” of Isaiah, but unfortunately for this view the lime tree is not a native of Palestine. Subsequent writers consider Isaiah’s elicit to be the terebinth (which see); and as there is nothing in the wording of the two verses to lead to the supposition that the el eths mean two distinct trees, we come to the conclusion that only one tree is meant, and that is the elm. The English translators not finding a tree to take the place of the second Greek Ptelea, rendered it teil tree, which, if retained, must be considered a second name for the elm.
The elm, Ulmus campestris, is a type of the family Ulmaceœ, and grows in Middle and Southern Europe; it attains a great age and size, and, although it is called the English elm, it does not ripen its seeds in this country, and is not found wild. It is therefore a doubtful native.
Ash (Heb., Oren)
The ash tree is a native of this country and many parts of Europe; it is also found in Western Asia, but is not recorded wild in Palestine. It is therefore doubtful whether the Hebrew word oren, translated ash, is referable to the common ash tree, Fraxinus excelsior; but as there are three other species stated to be natives of Palestine, namely, F. Ornus, F. parviflora, and F. Syriaca, all of which are smaller than the European one, the text may have reference to one or other of these. F. Ornus yields the manna of commerce (See Manna). In some versions of the Bible, the Hebrew word ores is translated “pine tree,” which is supposed by many commentators to be correct, but there is no good evidence in support of this view.
Plane Tree
“I was exalted like a palm tree in Engaddi, and as a rose plant in Jericho, as a fair olive tree in a pleasant field, and grew up as a plane tree by the water.”—Ecclesiasticus 24:14.
Plane tree is only mentioned in the above verse in the Apocrypha, and must not, be confounded with the tree commonly known in Great Britain as the plane tree, one of the Maples, Acer Pseudo-platanus (See Chestnut).
Chestnut (Heb., Armôn)
Although the chestnut tree, Castanea vesca, is a native of the Caucasus and other parts of Western Asia, it is not found wild in Palestine, and, therefore, the word chestnut in our Bible is now considered to be a wrong translation of the Hebrew word armôn, now admitted by the best authorities to be the plane tree, Platanus orientalis, which is wild in Lebanon and other parts of Palestine, and is also a tree of the plains, growing chiefly by streams and on the banks of the Upper Jordan. In some places it grows to a large size, a tree in one of the streets of Damascus measuring upwards of 40 feet in circumference. It appears to have been introduced into this country more than three hundred years ago, and is well known as the oriental plane, a noble tree, attaining with us the height of 50 or 60 feet. When standing singly, it generally produces wide-spreading branches, and is highly ornamental in parks and gardens.
P. acerifolia, also a native of Syria, is considered by some botanists to be a distinct species; it grows more upright than P. orientalis, and is less disposed to produce spreading branches. It is common in the parks about London, and, like the tree of Damascus, is at home in the streets and squares, and on the Thames Embankment. Its growing so freely in smoky cities like London, is no doubt due not only to the deciduous leaves, but also to its outer coat of bark falling away yearly. It thus gets rid of the coating of soot; the trunks then appear white, from which is derived its Hebrew name armors, which means naked.
Poplar (Heb., Libneh)
The genus Populus belongs to the willow family, Salicaceœ, which consists of about 170 species, with few exceptions natives of the North Temperate Zone, even extending to high latitudes. They are all deciduous trees, varying in height from 30 to 50 or more feet.
There are at least four kinds of poplars, natives of Syria; they are common in Palestine, growing with willows in the vicinity of rivers. Many are fast growers, especially when young, making long straight shoots, which may be called rods, and would be well suited for Jacob’s purpose. Some commentators, however, consider them to have been shoots of the storax tree (see stacte); but this is not likely, as the storax is a short-branched scrubby tree. This supposition is consequent on the Hebrew word libneh, meaning white, the leaves of the storax being white, similar to the leaves of the white poplar, Populus alba, a large tree with spreading branches, and extensively planted in many parts, especially about Damascus, for the shade it affords in summer. I have stated under mulberry that the Hebrew word translated mulberry should have been poplar, and Dr. Royle considered the trembling poplar, P. tremula, to be the tree. This view is also entertained by the Rev. H. B. Tristram, who says, “There is every reason to believe that the aspen or trembling poplar is the tree intended.” It is a slender, erect, branched, somewhat pyramidal, deciduous tree, attaining the height of 40 or 50 feet. Its leaves are nearly round, thin, and smooth, alternate, and obliquely attached by a slender footstalk, which allows them to move freely in a quivering manner, even when the air is still. Their rustleing against one-another gives an audible sound which may be heard at some distance, and explains the going “at the top of the mulberry tree.” (See Mulberry). It is common in some parts of Palestine and throughout Europe; it is also a native of this country, and is generally planted with alders and willows in wet places.
Willows. (Heb., Arâbim; in Ezek., Tzaphtzaphah)
“And ye shall take you on the first day the boughs of goodly trees, branches of palm trees and the boughs of thick trees, and willows of the brook.”—Lev. 23:40; 149040And ye shall take you on the first day the boughs of goodly trees, branches of palm trees, and the boughs of thick trees, and willows of the brook; and ye shall rejoice before the Lord your God seven days. (Leviticus 23:40) B.C.”The willows of the brook compass him about.”—Job 40:22; 152022The shady trees cover him with their shadow; the willows of the brook compass him about. (Job 40:22) B.C.”We hanged our harps upon the willows in the midst thereof.”—Psa. 137:2. 570 B.C. “That which they have laid up, shall they carry away to the brook of the willows.”—Isaiah 15:7; 7267Therefore the abundance they have gotten, and that which they have laid up, shall they carry away to the brook of the willows. (Isaiah 15:7) B.C. “And they shall spring up as among the grass, as willows by the water courses.”—Isa. 44:4; 7124And they shall spring up as among the grass, as willows by the water courses. (Isaiah 44:4) B.C. “He placed it by great waters, and set it as a willow tree.”—Ezek. 17:5; 5945He took also of the seed of the land, and planted it in a fruitful field; he placed it by great waters, and set it as a willow tree. (Ezekiel 17:5) B.C.
Willows are well known in this country under the names of osiers, sallows, and weeping willows; they belong to the genus Salix of Linnæus, of which there are above one hundred different kinds. With the allied genus Populus (poplars), they form the family Salicaceœ. They vary in size from small creeping shrubs to lofty trees, all being natives chiefly of the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, some extending to the Arctic zone. They generally grow in marshy places, near brooks, and on, river banks. These habitats correspond with the places of growth of the willows mentioned in the above verses. Although there are several kinds of willows growing in Palestine, it is, nevertheless, difficult to determine any special species.
Salix Ægyptiaca, S. cinerea, S. fragilis, and S. octandra, have been observed; and it is quite probable that the willow mentioned in Leviticus was a slender kind, which we call a withy, useful in fastening together the branches of the other trees used for forming the booths. The weeping willow, S. Babylonica, is also common, and is to be seen growing over wells. Although this has, received the name, S. Babylonica, it has not been seen growing by the streams of Babylon, and it is now generally understood that the willows upon which the Jews hanged their harps were not willow trees but poplars (Populus Euphratica).
There is, however, no evidence in support of its not being a willow, and it is supposed by superstitious people that the weight of the harps caused the branches to become pendulous. This became permanent and hereditary, thus accounting for the origin of the weeping willow. It is common in many parts of Asia, and in China is greatly planted as an ornamental tree. In this country it is recorded to have been cultivated in 1692, in the Royal Gardens, Hampton Court, then patronized as a botanic garden by William III., and superintended by the then celebrated botanist, Plukenet, who, as regards the introduction of exotic plants, may be called the Sir Joseph Banks of that period.
The Rev. H. B. Tristram suggests that the beautiful flowering shrub, Nerium Oleander, may with propriety be considered one of the willows of the brook; it is a willow-leaved shrub or small tree, but differs from willows in its leaves being opposite. It forms extensive thickets in some parts of the valley of the Jordan, and “in many of the streams of Moab it forms a complete screen, which the sun’s rays can never penetrate.”
Hazel (Heb., Luz)
The hazel, Corylus wellana, belongs to the oak family, Cupuliferœ, by some termed Corylaceœ. It is common through Europe and Western Asia. In general it retains the character of a shrub, producing many stems or rods; but when growing singly, it assumes the character of a tree, some 20 or 30 feet high. It is common in Lebanon and other parts of Palestine; and, although its stems are well suited to form one of the rods of Jacob, it is nevertheless supposed by some commentators that the word luz, translated hazel in the above verse, means the almond tree. The authority for this supposition is that the present Arabic name of the almond tree is the same as the Hebrew word translated hazel in our Bibles. The Rev. H. B. Tristram says he did not observe the hazel in Mesopotamia, the country where Jacob was at the time he made use of the rods. It is therefore most probable that the rods were those of the almond tree.
Bay Tree (Heb., Ezrâch)
“I have seen the wicked in great power, and spreading himself like a green bay tree.—Psalms 37:85; 1048 B.C.
The bay tree here spoken of may probably be the Laurus nobilis, well known in this country as the sweet bay. It is a native of the south of Europe and the Mediterranean regions generally, also of some places in Palestine, being abundant on Mount Carmel and about Hebron.
It is an evergreen tree, attaining the height of 40 or 50 feet, of compact habit, and, therefore, the word “spreading” is scarcely applicable to it; indeed, some authors think that the word translated green bay tree in the above verse, may mean any evergreen tree, or no tree at all, as the Hebrew word ezrâch occurs in fourteen other places in the Bible, where it is used to signify a native, as opposed to a stranger or foreigner.
Myrtle (Heb., Hadas)
“Go forth unto the mount, and fetch olive branches, and pine branches, and myrtle branches, and palm branches, and branches of thick trees, to make booths, as it is written.”—Neh. 8:15; 44515And that they should publish and proclaim in all their cities, and in Jerusalem, saying, Go forth unto the mount, and fetch olive branches, and pine branches, and myrtle branches, and palm branches, and branches of thick trees, to make booths, as it is written. (Nehemiah 8:15) B.C.
Besides the above quotation, myrtle is mentioned three times in the prophecies, chiefly in a symbolical sense. It continues to be used to this day by the Jews at the Feast of Tabernacles, and sprigs of three leaves in a whorl (which are not common), are highly valued for that ceremony in this country.
The myrtle, Myrtus communis, is the type of the extensive family, Myrtaceœ, which consists of shrubs and trees abounding in the tropical and sub-tropical regions. It is believed to be a native of Western Asia, is common in Palestine, and has become naturalized in most countries bordering the Mediterranean. It is the only representative of the family in Europe, its nearest ally being the pomegranate, which is by some botanists placed in Myrtaceœ, while others include it in a distinct family, named Granataceœ.
In favorable situations the myrtle forms a small tree, 20 to 30 feet in height, but it more often assumes the character of a straggling bush. Its wood is hard and mottled, often knotty, and is much esteemed in turnery. Its sweet-smelling leaves and flowers are used as perfumes, and for making sachet powders; a fragrant oil is also obtained from it. It was introduced to this country about three hundred years ago, and continues to be a favorite with all classes; it is, however, not sufficiently hardy to stand our severe winters without protection, except in sheltered situations.
Box-Tree (Heb., Teasshûr)
“I will set in the desert the fir tree, and the pine, and the box tree together.”—Isaiah 41:19; 71219I will plant in the wilderness the cedar, the shittah tree, and the myrtle, and the oil tree; I will set in the desert the fir tree, and the pine, and the box tree together: (Isaiah 41:19) B.C. “The glory of Lebanon shall come unto thee, the fir tree, the pine tree, and the box together, to beautify the place of my sanctuary.”—Isaiah 60:13; 69813The glory of Lebanon shall come unto thee, the fir tree, the pine tree, and the box together, to beautify the place of my sanctuary; and I will make the place of my feet glorious. (Isaiah 60:13) B.C.
The Box, Burns sempervirens, is a small evergreen tree, or often a bush, having small, smooth, shining, elliptical leaves. It belongs to the family, Euphorbiaceœ, and seldom exceeds the height of 20 to 30 feet, in this country rarely more than 10 or 12. It is extensively cultivated as an ornamental shrub, and it appears by the above quotations that the same use was made of it in the time of Isaiah.
It has a wide geographical range in Europe and Asia, extending eastward to China and Japan. In Palestine it is found only in the north, chiefly in Lebanon. In this country it is considered to be indigenous on Box Hill, in Surrey.
Its stem seldom exceeds 6 to 8 inches in diameter; the wood is very hard, takes a fine polish, and is valued for wood engraving, turnery, making mathematical instruments, and more. The chief imports are from ports in the Mediterranean and Black Seas, but on account of the great demand it is beginning to get scarce in those parts.
In Ezek. 27:66Of the oaks of Bashan have they made thine oars; the company of the Ashurites have made thy benches of ivory, brought out of the isles of Chittim. (Ezekiel 27:6), in alluding to ships, we read, that the benches were made of “ivory, brought out of the isles of Chittim,” modern Cyprus. As ivory is not a native product of any part of the Mediterranean region, it would have to be imported from the south, and would consequently be too expensive an article to make benches with; it is, therefore, supposed that they were made of box-tree wood, and inlaid with ivory.
In Smith’s “Dictionary of the Bible,” it is stated that in our authorized version the Hebrew word teasshûr is translated box-tree, and in the Vulgate buxus; but that it “is properly a species of cedar called Scherbin, to be recognized by the small size of its cones, and the upward tendency of its branches.” No satisfactory explanation is, however, given in support of this view; and we know of no coniferous trees growing on Lebanon to answer for the teasshûr.
Ebony (Heb., Hodnim)
The hard black wood known as ebony at the present day, is furnished by several species of Diospyros, a genus of the family Ebenaceœ. They are large but slow-growing trees, having simple, entire leaves, and small bell-shaped flowers. They are natives of India, Ceylon, and Mauritius; and there can be no doubt but that the ebony mentioned in the above quotations was either obtained from the Peninsula of India or from Ceylon, and conveyed in ships up the Red Sea.
The ebony of India is furnished by D. Ebenaster and D. melanoxylon; and that of Ceylon by D. Ebenum. The outer wood is white and soft, but when old the interior becomes hard and black, and constitutes ebony. At the present day it is valued for cabinet work, turnery, and fancy articles.
The genus, Diospyros, is represented in the south of Europe by D. Lotus, a small tree, bearing a fruit called the date plum, which is supposed to have been one of the fruits eaten by the people, called Lotophagi.
Cedar (Heb., Erez)
The word cedar occurs fifty-one times in the Bible in the Old Testament only; it is spoken of simply as cedar, or as cedar wood, cedar tree, or cedar of Lebanon; and with the exception of the cedar wood mentioned in the following verses, the whole of the others are considered to have reference to the tree well known as the cedar of Lebanon.
1. Cedar Wood
“Then shall the priest command to take for him that is to be cleansed two birds alive and clean, and cedar wood, and scarlet, and hyssop:...As for the living bird, he shall take it, and the cedar wood, and the scarlet, and the hyssop, and shall dip them and the living bird in the blood of the bird that was killed over the running water. And he shall sprinkle upon him that is to be cleansed from the leprosy seven times.”—Lev. 14:4, 6, 7; 14904Then shall the priest command to take for him that is to be cleansed two birds alive and clean, and cedar wood, and scarlet, and hyssop: (Leviticus 14:4)
6As for the living bird, he shall take it, and the cedar wood, and the scarlet, and the hyssop, and shall dip them and the living bird in the blood of the bird that was killed over the running water: 7And he shall sprinkle upon him that is to be cleansed from the leprosy seven times, and shall pronounce him clean, and shall let the living bird loose into the open field. (Leviticus 14:6‑7) B.C. “And the priest shall take cedar wood, and hyssop, and scarlet, and cast it into the midst of the burning of the heifer.”—Num. 19:6; 14716And the priest shall take cedar wood, and hyssop, and scarlet, and cast it into the midst of the burning of the heifer. (Numbers 19:6) B.C.
With regard to the cedar wood mentioned in these verses, the Israelites at that time were in the wilderness, and far away from Lebanon, consequently the cedar of Lebanon was unknown to them, and the name cedar must therefore have been first given to some tree growing in the wilderness. As all woods called cedar, especially those belonging to the family of Coniferce, are more or less odoriferous, it may be supposed that it was the wood of some species of Coniferce, such as that of Juniperus, of which there are several kinds growing in the wilderness, as J. oxycedrus, J. Phœicia. and J. Sabina, which are bushes or small trees, common in the desert regions of Western Asia.
With regard to the cedar wood, scarlet, and hyssop, ordered to be dipped into the blood and sprinkled over the leper, it is reasonable to suppose that they formed a kind of brush, or that each formed a separate brush, the cedar being probably a branch of some small, close-leaved Juniper, such as J. Sabina, which, if tied together, could be made into a brush. Or, if we view it literally, it was a piece of solid wood, and its being burnt, we must suppose, was for the purpose of assisting to destroy the effluvia that would rise on the burning of the bird.
2. Cedar of Lebanon (Heb., Erez)
The cedar of Lebanon, Cedrus Libani, belongs to the cone-bearing family, Coniferce.
The ancient and famed locality of the cedar on Lebanon is now reduced to about a quarter of a mile in extent, seated on an elevated plain, 6,172 feet above the level of the sea. Here grow in nine groups about four hundred trees, which vary from 18 inches to 14 feet in diameter; the largest is about 100 feet in height, and is supposed to be 2,500 years old. This, if correct, proves that none of the present trees were growing in the time of Solomon. Other groves, and even whole forests of cedar, have of late years been discovered in the northern parts of Lebanon and Taurus; this tree extends eastward through the Caucasus into the Himalayan range of Northern India, where it assumes a different aspect, and is described by botanists as Cedrus Deodara. It is also represented in the Atlas range of Northern Africa by C. Atlantica, which, with the Deodar has, during the last fifty years, been introduced into this country. They are ornamental, hardy trees. C. Libani was introduced about two hundred years ago, and large specimens, some measuring 15 to 20 feet in circumference, are recorded. The wood is highly odoriferous, but is soft, and not much valued in this country.
It, however, appears to have been highly valued for its durability in the time of Solomon, as also by the king of Assyria, who obtained cedar wood for building his palace in Nineveh. Fragments of cedar wood, about 3000 years old, were found in the ruins of Nineveh by Mr. Layard, and are now in the British Museum. They were first supposed to be yew; but a careful microscopic examination made by Mr. Carruthers, with the odor they emitted when burnt, proved it to be cedar wood.
Fir (Heb., Beroth, Berosh)
“And David and all the house of Israel played before the Lord on all manner of instruments made of fir wood.”—2 Sam. 4:5; 10425And the sons of Rimmon the Beerothite, Rechab and Baanah, went, and came about the heat of the day to the house of Ish-bosheth, who lay on a bed at noon. (2 Samuel 4:5) B.C. “So Hiram gave Solomon cedar trees, and fir trees according to all his desire.”—1 Kings 5:10; 101410So Hiram gave Solomon cedar trees and fir trees according to all his desire. (1 Kings 5:10) B.C. “And the two doors were of fir tree.”—1 Kings 4:34; 100534And there came of all people to hear the wisdom of Solomon, from all kings of the earth, which had heard of his wisdom. (1 Kings 4:34) B.C. “I am come up to the height of the mountains, to the sides of Lebanon, and will cut down the tall cedar trees thereof, and the choice fir trees there of.”—2 Kings 19:23; 71023By thy messengers thou hast reproached the Lord, and hast said, With the multitude of my chariots I am come up to the height of the mountains, to the sides of Lebanon, and will cut down the tall cedar trees thereof, and the choice fir trees thereof: and I will enter into the lodgings of his borders, and into the forest of his Carmel. (2 Kings 19:23) B.C.”Send me also cedar trees, fir trees, and algum trees, out of Lebanon.”—2 Chron. 2:8; 10158Send me also cedar trees, fir trees, and algum trees, out of Lebanon: for I know that thy servants can skill to cut timber in Lebanon; and, behold, my servants shall be with thy servants, (2 Chronicles 2:8) B.C.”They have made all thy ship boards of fir trees of Senir: they have taken cedars from Lebanon to make masts for thee.”—Ezek. 27:5; 5885They have made all thy ship boards of fir trees of Senir: they have taken cedars from Lebanon to make masts for thee. (Ezekiel 27:5) B.C.
From the time of Samuel to the end of Bible history, the word fir occurs seventeen times, generally in connection with Mount Lebanon. Solomon asks King Hiram to send him cedar trees and fir trees out of Lebanon, but it is questionable whether in all cases the word fir means one kind of tree. In the Septuagint, the two Hebrew words, beroth and berosh are indifferently rendered pine, cypress, and juniper, all of which, admitting the pine to be the same as the fir, grow on Mount Lebanon.
Fir trees and pine trees, so called at the present day, belong to the family Coniferce, thus named on account of the fruit being in the form of a cone, which varies in size from a few inches to nearly 2 feet in length, and is formed of hard woody scales lying over one another, and including the seeds.
By some botanists the word Pinaceœ is adopted as the name of the family instead of Coniferce, of which there are many species, natives of both the Old and New Worlds, some attaining a great size and height, even exceeding 300 feet. All were originally included under the genus Finns of Linnæus but botanists have since arranged them under at least two well marked genera, Finns and Abies, distinguished by the first having narrow needle-shaped leaves, produced in fascicles of from two to five; the second having short linear leaves, growing singly, closely set on the branches, generally in two more or less distinct rows. In this country the first are called pines, and are represented by Pinus sylvestris, well known as “Scotch fir,” but which should be more properly “Scotch pine;” the second, firs, being represented by Abies excelsa, the well-known spruce fir, not a native of this country, but abundant in Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, and the mountain regions of Middle Europe generally.
This interchange of names leads to some degree of difficulty in determining the fir and pine trees of the Bible; but as no species of Abies has been sound on Lebanon or in other parts of Palestine, we are led to believe that fir and pine are names for one kind of tree only, and that the “choice fir trees” obtained by Solomon out of Lebanon were Pinus Halepensis, a tall tree, similar in habit of growth to the Scotch fir, which some travelers have taken it to be. It is abundant on the slopes of Lebanon and Senir (Hermon), and forms forests in Gilead. It was introduced into this country about the middle of the seventeenth century, but is rather tender for this climate, and does not make a handsome tree.
Another fir, Pinus maritima, grows along the coast of Palestine, as also P. Pinea, or stone pine. Both are common to Southern Europe; the large and nutty seeds of the latter forming an article of food in many parts.
The timber of fir and pine trees is as extensively used at the present day for building and furnishing purposes as it was in Solomon’s time.
Pine Tree (Heb., Tidhar)
“Go forth unto the mount, and fetch olive branches, and pine branches (etz shamen), and myrtle branches, and palm branches, and branches of thick trees, to make booths.”—Nehemiah 8:15; 44515And that they should publish and proclaim in all their cities, and in Jerusalem, saying, Go forth unto the mount, and fetch olive branches, and pine branches, and myrtle branches, and palm branches, and branches of thick trees, to make booths, as it is written. (Nehemiah 8:15) B.C. “I will set in the desert the fir tree and the pine, and the box tree together.”—Isaiah 41:19; 71219I will plant in the wilderness the cedar, the shittah tree, and the myrtle, and the oil tree; I will set in the desert the fir tree, and the pine, and the box tree together: (Isaiah 41:19) B.C. “The glory of Lebanon shall come unto thee, the fir tree, the pine tree, and the box together.”—Isaiah 60:13; 69813The glory of Lebanon shall come unto thee, the fir tree, the pine tree, and the box together, to beautify the place of my sanctuary; and I will make the place of my feet glorious. (Isaiah 60:13) B.C. It has been shown under fir, that the words fir and pine are in modern botanical nomenclature indiscriminately applied to species of both divisions of the Linnaean genus Pinus, namely, Pinus and Abies, the first being generally called Pines, and the latter Firs; thus, Abies excelsa is well known as the spruce fir. It has, however, been shown under fir, that Pinus Halepensis is the fir tree of Lebanon; but as there are no species of Abies (as represented by the spruce fir) found in Palestine, it becomes impossible to say what tree the word tidhar of Isaiah refers to. In our version this word is translated pine, which word does not occur in the Bible till more than three hundred years after Solomon had had fir trees from Lebanon. Isaiah then says, “The glory of Lebanon shall come unto thee, the fir tree, the pine tree, and the box together.” Two distinct coniferous trees are here specially mentioned. As the pine is not mentioned in Solomon’s time, being first and only noticed by Isaiah, and as it is quite probable that Isaiah was not practically acquainted with the trees growing on Mount Lebanon, and that his only knowledge of them was derived from the Books of Kings and Chronicles, or what he might hear of them at Jerusalem, and as he speaks of them only figuratively, it is impossible to determine what he calls tidhar, translated pine tree in our version.
Two hundred and forty years after Isaiah, Nehemiah directs “pine branches” to be used for making booths. This does not assist us in any way in determining the kind of tree from which these branches were to be obtained; and the difficulty is increased by finding that the Hebrew word for pine branches, etz shamen, is also in our version rendered “oil tree” in Isa. 41:1919I will plant in the wilderness the cedar, the shittah tree, and the myrtle, and the oil tree; I will set in the desert the fir tree, and the pine, and the box tree together: (Isaiah 41:19) (see Oil Tree). The flat branches of fir being well adapted for covering booths, may lead us to suppose that in Nehemiah’s time some species of Abies grew in Palestine, and that its absence at the present time may be consequent on the great destruction that has befallen the forests of Palestine under its present rulers.
After Nehemiah the word pine does not again occur in the Bible, but about five hundred years later it is mentioned by Josephus, who says Solomon had pine wood brought in ships from Ophir, which “was made use of partly for pillars and supports to the king’s temple and palace, partly for musical instruments, as harps, cymbals, psalteries, and the like, for the Levites to glorify God upon. It is to be noted, that for size and beauty, Solomon had never seen any of this sort of wood comparable to it before. This was none of the wood that passes commonly upon the world for pine in the way of trade. This was somewhat of the grain of a fig tree, only a little whiter, and more glossy.” On considering that Josephus wrote eleven hundred years after Solomon had trees from Ophir (see Almug), and as we have no account of any being imported after that, Josephus’s description must be received with some degree of reservation, but what he says is sufficient to show that in his time a kind of wood was known in the “way of trade” by the name of Pine. In a recently-published edition of Josephus, instead of the word Ophir it is said that “Solomon had pine trees from Aurea Chersonesus;” if Chersonesus means Cherson, in the Crimea, then we are induced to believe that king Hiram sent ships into the Black Sea to bring timber trees for Solomon, but if such is the case it is not alluded to in the Bible.
Canon Tristram thinks the word tidhar may be the elm, but there is nothing in the text in support of this; it may be any large tree. The root of the word means “to revolve,” which may be considered to allude to the branches of fir and pine being produced in whorls.
Cypress (Heb., Tizza)
Several trees and shrubs have, in modern times, received the name of cypress, which have nothing to do with the cypress of the above text, or with the plant rendered cypress in marginal Bibles (see camphire). In the Apocrypha we read “I was exalted like a cedar in Lebanus, and as the cypress tree upon the mountains of Hermon.... And as a cypress tree which groweth up to the clouds.”—Eccl. 24:13; 1:1010Is there any thing whereof it may be said, See, this is new? it hath been already of old time, which was before us. (Ecclesiastes 1:10). This, with the words of Isaiah, “He heweth him down cedars, and taketh the cypress and the oak,” is sufficient to lead us to believe that the cypress is a large, tall-growing tree, and that it grew in company with the cedar and oak on Mounts Lebanon and Hermon. The cypress is not mentioned in the Bible as having been used by Solomon in the building of the Temple; but, according to Josephus, Hiram sends word to Solomon, “I will give order to cut down, and to export such quantities of the fairest cedars and cypress trees as you shall have occasion for.” It may also reasonably be supposed that the hewers of wood would not spare the fine cypress trees of Lebanon. The word cypress, like that of cedar, is supposed by some to be the name of more than one special tree of the fir family; it therefore becomes very doubtful what tree is alluded to in the above quotations.
The tree now called cypress is the Cupressus sempervirens of Linnaeus, well known as the evergreen cypress, of which there are two forms; the branches of one, C. horizontalis, spreading horizontally, the branches of the other being upright and imparting to the trees a pyramidal form. The latter is known as the pyramidal cypress, and although it is abundantly cultivated in Western Asia and North-west India, it has not been observed truly wild; it is, therefore, supposed to have originated as a variety, and to have early found favor on account of its compact pyramidal habit. In Palestine it attains the height of from 50 to 60 feet; and at Smyrna one is mentioned 120 feet in height, and with a girth of 8 or 10 feet. With regard to the horizontal variety, it is said to grow wild on the west side of Lebanon, in some parts of Asia Minor, and on the mountains of Crete and Cyprus (from which it takes its name). It there also attains a considerable height. Either of these forms may answer for the cypress tree “that groweth up to the clouds.” The wood is very hard and durable, and was much used by the ancients for making their idols, and is said to have been used by the Phoenicians and Greeks for shipbuilding.
The pyramidal form is extensively planted in Mahomedan and Armenian cemeteries. It was introduced to this country about 300 years ago, and is well known as an ornamental small tree, seldom growing more than 20 feet high. It is frequently injured in severe winters.
Thyine Wood (Heb., Etz Aboth; Greek, Thyia.)
“The merchandise of gold, and silver, and precious stones, and of pearls, and fine linen, and purple, and silk, and scarlet, and all thyine wood.”—Rev. 18:12; 9612The merchandise of gold, and silver, and precious stones, and of pearls, and fine linen, and purple, and silk, and scarlet, and all thyine wood, and all manner vessels of ivory, and all manner vessels of most precious wood, and of brass, and iron, and marble, (Revelation 18:12) A.D.
The thyine wood of the above verse is believed to be the wood of a tree named by Linnæus Thuja articulata, which is now ranked by modern botanists as a distinct genus, under the name of Callitris quadrivalvis, a small tree belonging to the cypress section of the Coniferce family. It is a native of Algeria, and other parts of the Atlas range of North Africa. It seldom exceeds the height of 30 feet, and has hard dark-colored fragrant wood that takes a fine polish, and was used for ornamental cabinet work in ancient Rome; it is stated that Cicero had a table made of it that cost £9,000, and even much higher prices were given, as recorded by Pliny. Ornaments made of this wood are to be seen in the museum at Kew, presented by the late Prince Napoleon Jerome. Being mentioned by John among the riches of Babylon, it may be supposed that it was conveyed by Phoenician ships to Tire in Syria from Carthage, or some other port on the African coast, and from thence found its way to Babylon. It yields a very odoriferous resin, known as sandarach, which is highly prized by the Greeks and Romans for incense.
Thyine is the last vegetable production mentioned in Scripture, and is supposed by some to be the Almug spoken of by Solomon, which see.
Juniper (Heb., Rothem)
It must be understood that the Juniper spoken of in the above quotations has no relation to the plant common throughout Europe, and known as Juniper in this country; but is a species of broom originally described under the genus Genista, G. monosperma, and now separated as a distinct genus under the name of Retama, its Hebrew name. Of this genus there are several species common in the regions of the Mediterranean, the Syrian species being R. Rœtam. Its habit of growth is similar to that of the common broom, but its branches are longer and more flexible, forming a dense bush 10 or 12 feet high.
Although its leaves are very small and scanty, it nevertheless forms an agreeable shade. It is abundant in Palestine, growing in rocky places and ravines, and is common round the Dead Sea and deserts of Syria. In many places in the Wilderness it is the only bush that affords shade.
Its roots, like those of our common broom, are nauseous in the extreme, and even to a degree poisonous, therefore we may reasonably suppose they were not the Juniper roots eaten for meat, mentioned in Job; the part eaten may, however, have been a species of Cynomorium, which grows on the roots of the Retam in the same manner as the broom rapes (Orobanchœ), grow on the broom roots in this country, and as Cynomorium coccineum has been observed growing in abundance on the roots of the Retama in the neighborhood of the Dead Sea, and as it, or an allied species, is eaten in times of scarcity, especially in the Canary Islands, it seems quite probable that it was the “Juniper roots” alluded to in Job. Cynomorium coccineum belongs to the family Balanophoreœ, of which there are about thirty known species, most of which are Fungus-like parasites, chiefly growing on the roots of other plants. C. coccineum is cylindrical and fleshy, about a foot in height of a red color, covered with imbricate scales in the place of leaves, and bearing inconspicuous flowers on its apex. It was originally known by the name of Fungus melitensis, and was supposed to grow only in the island of Malta. It was so highly prized for its medical virtues that a military sentry was placed over the spot where it grew.
The “coals of Juniper” is explained by the Retam being extensively employed for making charcoal, which is said to be of fine quality, and forms an important article of trade between the Bedouins and Egyptians.
Shittah Tree and Shittim Wood
In the twenty-fifth and twenty-sixth chapters of Exodus (1491 B.C.), and also in Deuteronomy, shittim wood is mentioned above twenty times, in all cases in connection with the Ark of the Tabernacle, which was ordered to be made of shittim wood; as well as the altar and table of the Tabernacle.
The Shittah tree, Acacia Segal, belongs to the Mimoseœ section of the family Leguminosœ. This, and the allied species yielding gum arabic, are Acacia arabica and A. nilotica, spiny trees, generally of small growth, abounding in the deserts of Eastern Africa, Arabia, and Syria, and in the Peninsula of Sinai. The wood of the shittah is very hard, and valuable for cabinet work.
In the more favorable region of the Dead Sea, it attains a considerable size. In the desert it is often to be seen in the form of a bush, with strong white twin spines, an inch and a half in length.
Canon Tristram says, “The wild Acacia or Bunt everywhere represents the seneh or senna (Hebrew) of the burning bush.” This, however, seems very problematical, as there is no evidence in support of such decisions; all we have to judge by, is that a bush was on fire and was not consumed. The Shittah tree is represented in this country by Robinia pseud-acacia, the Locust tree of North America. It was introduced to this country about two hundred years ago; it is quite hardy, and attains a considerable size, a tree still standing in the original arboretum at Kew being 12 feet 10 inches in circumference a little above the ground. The wood is hard.
Husks (Greek, Keratia)
“And brought the man of God bread of the firstfruits, twenty loaves of barley, and full ears of corn in the husk thereof.”—2 Kings. 4:42; 895 B.C. “And he would fain have filled his belly with the husks that the swine did eat.”—Luke 15:16; 3316And he would fain have filled his belly with the husks that the swine did eat: and no man gave unto him. (Luke 15:16) A.D.
The word husk is the common name for the outer covering of grains of corn, and many kinds of soft-skinned fruits; and is especially applicable to the empty pods of peas, beans, and pulse plants in general, many of which furnish a considerable amount of food for man and beast, the pods of the scarlet runner being a familiar example. There seems no reason for doubting that the husks of the parable were the pods of Ceratonia Siliqua, a small tree common in Palestine, and the regions of the Mediterranean generally, growing in almost every kind of situation, and resisting extreme drought. It seldom exceeds 30 feet in height, sometimes has a stem a foot or more in diameter, and has winged shining leaves similar to those of the Ash, but the leaflets are blunter and more rigid. The flowers are small and yellow, and have a fœtid odor. It belongs to the family Leguminosœ, and produces generally pods 6 to 8 inches in length, in the form of a curved horn (hence the name Ceratonia), but somewhat flat, and from an inch to an inch and a half in breadth. They contain numerous pea-like seeds, included in an agreeably flavored mucilaginous saccharine pulp, which is ground up with the pods and used for making sweetmeats. In all countries where the tree grows the pods are extensively used for feeding cattle and swine, and in times of scarcity are used for human food. Of late years they have been extensively imported to this country for feeding cattle.
The tree is familiarly known by the name of Carob, and also by that of St. John’s bread. The sweet pods are supposed by some to be the locusts which John the Baptist ate while in the wilderness. It is, however, now generally understood that his food was the insect well known by the name of locust, and which, according to Lev. 11:2222Even these of them ye may eat; the locust after his kind, and the bald locust after his kind, and the beetle after his kind, and the grasshopper after his kind. (Leviticus 11:22), was one of the flying and creeping things which the Israelites were permitted to eat. Be that as it may, it appears that the locusts eaten by John were, by early Christians, supposed to be the pods of the Carob tree. The name Locust Tree had been given by early settlers in America to trees bearing similar pods, the locust trees of North America being Robinia pseud acacia and Gleditschia triacanthos, and that of West Indies and Tropical America Hymenœa Courbaril.
Branches and Boughs
“And ye shall take you on the first day the boughs of goodly trees, branches of palm trees, and the boughs of thick trees, and willows of the brook; and ye shall rejoice before the Lord your God seven days.” “Ye shall dwell in booths seven days.”—Lev. 23:40,42; 149040And ye shall take you on the first day the boughs of goodly trees, branches of palm trees, and the boughs of thick trees, and willows of the brook; and ye shall rejoice before the Lord your God seven days. (Leviticus 23:40)
42Ye shall dwell in booths seven days; all that are Israelites born shall dwell in booths: (Leviticus 23:42) B.C.”Go forth unto the mount, and fetch olive branches, and pine branches, and myrtle branches, and palm branches, and branches of thick trees, to make booths, as it is written.”—Neh. 13:15; 44515In those days saw I in Judah some treading wine presses on the sabbath, and bringing in sheaves, and lading asses; as also wine, grapes, and figs, and all manner of burdens, which they brought into Jerusalem on the sabbath day: and I testified against them in the day wherein they sold victuals. (Nehemiah 13:15) B.C.
These verses require no explanation, the uses of boughs and branches being for the purpose of forming booths to live in during the Feast of the Tabernacle. A different opinion is, however, entertained by the Hebrew Rabbis, who say that the “boughs of goodly trees” should be fruit of goodly trees, and that the goodly trees were the citron trees; but there is no evidence to show that the citron was known in the time of Moses. According to Josephus, the fruit of the citron must have been abundant, and extensively used in the ceremonies of the Feast of Tabernacles about 100 years before the Christian era: he relates that King Alexander Jannæus, in a fit of tyranny, so annoyed the people during the Feast of Tabernacles that they pelted him with citrons. The use of citrons is still continued in the same ceremony by the modern Jews. It is considered an emblem of all good things that God has given them.
The Citron, Citrus medica, belongs to the Orange family. It is a spiny, much-branched tree, seldom exceeding 12 feet in height, having smooth laurel-like leaves, with an oblong orange-like fruit, from five to six inches long, and with a rough yellowish rind. Some consider it to be the “apples of gold” spoken of in Proverbs 25:1111A word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in pictures of silver. (Proverbs 25:11), the Hebrew name for citron being nearly the same as tappuach, which is rendered apple. It is, however, doubtful whether it grew in Palestine in the time of Solomon.
As the specific name implies, it is considered to be a native of Media, but as it is, with the orange and lemon, found wild in Upper India, it is to be inferred that it was early introduced into Persia and Media, where it is recorded to have been cultivated before the time of Alexander the Great, ultimately into Palestine, and during the Crusades into the south of Europe, where it is extensively cultivated, large quantities of the fruit being exported to this country from Spain and ports of the Mediterranean.
Algum and Almug
It appears that the original translators of the Bible were unable to identify any trees bearing the above names in Palestine or other countries, and most commentators consider the two names to refer to one kind of tree only, but this seems irreconcilable with the context of the two verses, and as, according to Bible chronology, there are three years difference of time between the two texts, we treat them separately.
Algum
The reading of the above verse shows that the tree called by Solomon Algum, grew on Lebanon along with the Cedar and Fir, and that it was a large tree, but we have no further information to assist us in determining what this tree was. As the Cypress is not spoken of in the time of Solomon, and as it grew on Lebanon and is a large tree, it may probably have been the tree called by Solomon Algum, or the alguni may have been Juniperus excelsa, or the walnut; the latter being a large tree, with fine, hard-grained wood, which would, consequently, be a useful wood for the temple.
Almug
“And the navy also of Hiram, that brought gold from Ophir, brought in from Ophir great plenty of almug trees; And the king made of the almug trees pillars for the house of the Lord, and for the king’s house, harps also and psalteries for singers.”—1 Kings 10:11-12; 101211And the navy also of Hiram, that brought gold from Ophir, brought in from Ophir great plenty of almug trees, and precious stones. 12And the king made of the almug trees pillars for the house of the Lord, and for the king's house, harps also and psalteries for singers: there came no such almug trees, nor were seen unto this day. (1 Kings 10:11‑12) B.C.
Although the country called Ophir is not well identified with any country known at the present day, it seems to have been the name of some country or countries lying beyond the Straits of Babelmandeb, and may be considered to have been the coast of Africa on one side, and the peninsula of India on the other. The Almug trees probably came from the latter country, and were Plerocarpus santalinus known in modern times as Red Saunders wood, a large tree of the family Leguminosœ. Its wood is hard and heavy, of a red color, takes a fine polish, and is well suited for the purpose for which Solomon required it. Even at the present day it is used for making musical instruments.
Some suppose the Almug to be the Sandalwood tree, Santalum album, but it is much smaller than the preceding, and would scarcely be fit for pillars; it is, however, highly valuable for its odoriferous properties (see Aloes).
It may be here mentioned that all merchandise coming by ships from Ophir, up the Red Sea, would be landed at Solomon’s Port, Ezion Geber, at the head of the Gulf of Akaba, and thence conveyed direct to Jerusalem.
Gopher Wood (Not Translated)
Commentators have failed to identify the Hebrew word gopher with any special tree. The general idea is that it was some coniferous tree; this is, however, mere conjecture, but we may presume that the wood used depended upon the kind of trees that grew in the neighborhood where the ark was built; the locality, however, is unknown.
Palm Trees (Heb., Lamar; Greek, Phoenix.)
“And they came to Elim, where were twelve wells of water, and threescore and ten palm trees: and they encamped there by the waters.” Exod. 15:27; 149127And they came to Elim, where were twelve wells of water, and threescore and ten palm trees: and they encamped there by the waters. (Exodus 15:27) B.C. “And ye shall take you on the first day the boughs of goodly trees, branches of palm trees, and the boughs of thick trees, and willows of the brook.”—Lev. 23:40; 149040And ye shall take you on the first day the boughs of goodly trees, branches of palm trees, and the boughs of thick trees, and willows of the brook; and ye shall rejoice before the Lord your God seven days. (Leviticus 23:40) B.C. “And the south, and the plain of the valley of Jericho, the city of palm trees.”—Deut. 34:3; 14513And the south, and the plain of the valley of Jericho, the city of palm trees, unto Zoar. (Deuteronomy 34:3) B.C. “And he carved all the walls of the house round about with carved figures of cherubims and palm trees and open flowers.”—1 Kings 6:2929And he carved all the walls of the house round about with carved figures of cherubims and palm trees and open flowers, within and without. (1 Kings 6:29), also verses 32 and 35; 1005 B.C.”Took branches of palm trees, and went forth to meet him.”—John 12:13; 3313Took branches of palm trees, and went forth to meet him, and cried, Hosanna: Blessed is the King of Israel that cometh in the name of the Lord. (John 12:13) A.D.
Palms form an extensive family of plants termed Palmaceœ, which comprehend about a thousand different kinds. They have a wide geographical range, the greater number being found within or near the tropics, and rarely extending beyond 40° north and 35° south latitude. They belong to the class Endogens, having cylindrical stems, some rising to 100 or even nearly 200 feet in height; and bearing a crown of leaves, from the axils of which proceed bunches of small inconspicuous flowers contained in a sheath, which ultimately bursts. The leaves are of two forms, one set being simply winged, the others in the shape of a flabella or fan.
With the exception of the grass and pea families, Palms are the most important to man, to whom they supply food, drink, and nearly all the necessaries of life. The most important are the Cocoa-nut (Cocos nucifera), and the Date, the palm of the Bible (Phoenix dactylifera), which has an extensive range from India through Western Asia, Egypt, and North Africa to the Atlantic: it may be called the food tree of the desert, furnishing food to millions of people.
According to age, it varies in height, often rising to 50 or 80 feet; it belongs to the section with winged leaves, which average from 15 to 20 feet in length, and are furnished with numerous, close-set, ribbon-like pinnæ about a foot or more in length, the lower becoming spiny; the fruit is produced in pendulous bunches from the axils of the leaves, each bunch weighing from 30 to 50 pounds.
In early times the date palm was abundant in Palestine; its Greek name, Phœnix, gave the name to that part of the country known as Phenicia. Some of the coins of Tire and Sidon have on them the figure of a palm; as has also a Jewish coin, struck in the time of Judas Maccabaeus; and to commemorate the conquering of the Jews and the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, a coin was struck by Vespasian, representing the figure of a weeping woman sitting under a palm tree. The palm has thus become emblematical of Palestine. Jericho was called the city of palms, and Josephus relates that, in his time, there was a grove near the city seven miles in length, that they were abundant round the Sea of Galilee, and in the lower valley of the Jordan, and that they grew on the Mount of Olives and about Jerusalem. All these, with the exception of a few scattered trees, have disappeared; their fossilized and petrified stems are now the only remains of their once great abundance in these localities. In the oases of the desert of Sinai they grow in clumps and entangled thickets, and furnish one of the principal articles of food for the Bedouin Arabs; the stones when ground form food for their camels.
The palm trees of Elim of the present day are described by the Rev. H. Bonar as follows: “The Palm trees were without number: I began to count them, but having reached the eightieth, I desisted. They extend for more than a mile and a half down the Wady, and must amount to several hundreds, at the lowest estimate. Most of them have four or five stems shooting up from one root. They have been goodly trees, as the prostrate trunks skewed, but have been cut down clean by the ground, and the present forest is made up of shoots, which give a stunted and shaggy appearance to the whole.”
The bases of the leaves of the date palm being furnished with strong spines, the cutting of leaves from the tree requires to be cautiously done. It is difficult to reconcile this with “they took branches of palm trees, and went out to meet him;” it must, therefore, be supposed that they were young unexpanded leaves, 6 to 8 feet in length; which, being carried by a number of men in procession, would have an imposing appearance. This carrying of palm leaves on occasions of festivity was not new to the Jews, as we read in the Apocrypha, 2 Macc. 10:7, that on the restoration of the Temple by Judas Maccabeus the people “bore in their hands branches and fair boughs, and palms also, and sang psalms unto him that had given them good success.”
Palm leaves are still used by the Jews at the Feast of Tabernacles. For use in this country they are chiefly obtained from Southern France and Italy. At Elche, in the province of Alicante, in Spain, date palm trees abound, and here, as well as in the countries previously named, for religious purposes the leaves are blanched by tying straw round the crown of leaves before they expand.
The date palm appears to have been early introduced into Southern Europe, but although it grows freely, and attains a considerable height, its fruit does not ripen except under the most favorable conditions, as in South Spain.
The greatest importations of dates to this country come from Spain, Algiers, and other parts of the African coast of the Mediterranean.
Plants of the date palm are to be seen in most botanic gardens; one in the Palm House at Kew being upwards of 100 years old. The finest plant at the present time in this country is the one in the Duke of Northumberland’s Garden at Sion House, which has a stem 35 feet high.
In India, palm wine or toddy, which, when distilled, becomes an intoxicating drink called arrack, is obtained by tapping several species of palms; this is also, though in a less degree, obtained from the date palm. This palm sap may probably be the “strong drink” spoken of in Judges 13:44Now therefore beware, I pray thee, and drink not wine nor strong drink, and eat not any unclean thing: (Judges 13:4); Isaiah 5:1111Woe unto them that rise up early in the morning, that they may follow strong drink; that continue until night, till wine inflame them! (Isaiah 5:11); Luke 1:1515For he shall be great in the sight of the Lord, and shall drink neither wine nor strong drink; and he shall be filled with the Holy Ghost, even from his mother's womb. (Luke 1:15), and other places in the Bible. (See Wormwood).
The date palm belongs to the twenty-second class of Linnaeus termed diœcia, which is characterized by plants of the same species bearing stamens and pistils on separate plants—that is, male and female plants—and which appears to have been early known in countries where the fruit of the date tree forms an extensive article of food, for, in order to secure a good crop of dates, a bunch of flowers is removed from the male tree and suspended over the flowers of the female. In the wars between tribes the greatest calamity that can be inflicted on the conquered is the cutting down of their male date trees by the conqueror.
Fig (Heb., Teenah)
“And they (the spies) brought of the pomegranates, and of the figs.”—Numb. 13:23; 149023And they came unto the brook of Eshcol, and cut down from thence a branch with one cluster of grapes, and they bare it between two upon a staff; and they brought of the pomegranates, and of the figs. (Numbers 13:23) B.C. “It is no place of seed, or of figs, or of vines, or of pomegranates.”—Num. 20:5; 14535And wherefore have ye made us to come up out of Egypt, to bring us in unto this evil place? it is no place of seed, or of figs, or of vines, or of pomegranates; neither is there any water to drink. (Numbers 20:5) B.C.
The words fig, figs, or fig tree occur forty-three times in the Bible, and there is no doubt but that all mean the fig tree of our time, except the first, mentioned in Genesis; there is no evidence to prove the leaves there spoken of to have been leaves of the fig tree mentioned in the other verses; and it is not until 2,500 years after Adam made aprons of fig leaves that we find the fig again alluded to.
In early times, as now, the fig tree was extensively cultivated in Egypt, Palestine, and other parts of Syria, and formed one of the principal articles of food for the people in those countries. In the 1 Sam. 25, we read that part of the present sent to king David consisted of 200 cakes of figs.
The fig tree is common throughout Palestine, both in a wild state and cultivated, there being extensive orchards of it near Jerusalem, and one or more trees almost in every garden. This verifies several texts in the Bible, such as every man sitting “under his own fig tree,” and “eating of his own fig tree.”
The botanical name of the fig tree is Ficus Carica; it belongs to the mulberry family Moraceœ; its mode of growth varies considerably, according to the nature of the climate and locality. It is often to be seen in the form of a long, straggling, branching shrub, even growing in rocky places, as may be seen about Jerusalem and other places in Palestine; but in favorable situations it assumes the character of a tree, seldom, however, exceeding 20 or 30 feet in height. When standing singly it often forms a conspicuous object, its stem measuring 2 to 3 feet in diameter. In Palestine, such trees are often seen overshadowing wells. The fig tree is now cultivated in all regions of the earth suitable to its growth. Great quantities of the dried fruit are yearly exported from Turkey, Egypt, and ports on both sides of the Mediterranean.
It was early introduced into this country, but rarely assumes the character of a tree, except in places on the South coast and in the Isle of Wight, where it produces abundance of luscious fruit. The fruit so called is, however, not a true fruit, but what is termed by botanists a fleshy receptacle; its form, according to the sort, varies from nearly round to conical; it is attached by its narrow end to the branches, the broad end having a small opening like a pore; the flowers are numerous, small, and are attached round the interior sides of the cavity of the receptacle, the grit felt on eating a fig being the true fruit or seed.
Sycamore (Heb., Shikmin, Shikmoth)
“And cedars made he to be as the sycamore trees that are in the vale, for abundance.”—1 Kings 10:27; 99227And the king made silver to be in Jerusalem as stones, and cedars made he to be as the sycomore trees that are in the vale, for abundance. (1 Kings 10:27) B.C. “And over the olive trees and the sycamore trees that were in the low plains was Baal-hanan.”—1 Chron. 27:28; 101528And over the olive trees and the sycomore trees that were in the low plains was Baal-hanan the Gederite: and over the cellars of oil was Joash: (1 Chronicles 27:28) B.C. “He destroyed their vines with hail, and their sycamore trees with frost”—Psa. 78:4747He destroyed their vines with hail, and their sycomore trees with frost. (Psalm 78:47). “I was no prophet, neither was I a prophet’s son; but I was an herdman, and a gatherer of sycamore fruit.”—Amos 7:14; 78714Then answered Amos, and said to Amaziah, I was no prophet, neither was I a prophet's son; but I was an herdman, and a gatherer of sycomore fruit: (Amos 7:14) B.C. “And he (Zacchæus) ran before, and climbed up into a sycamore tree to see Him.”—Luke 19:4; 334And he ran before, and climbed up into a sycomore tree to see him: for he was to pass that way. (Luke 19:4) A.D.
The Sycamore tree (Ficus Sycomorus) is a strong-growing, robust tree, attaining the height of 30 or 40 feet, and sometimes having a circumference of 20 or more feet: the stem is short, dividing into large branches near the ground. It is an evergreen, having lobed leaves similar to those of the common fig, but smaller. The fruit is produced in great abundance from all parts of the young and old branches: it is of the same nature, only not so large, and much inferior to that of the common fig. Nevertheless, it is extensively used for food in Palestine and Egypt especially by the lower classes of people, at Cairo being hawked in the streets. Its wood is very soft and porous, but, notwithstanding this, is very lasting, as is proved by mummy cases made of it upwards of 3000 years ago, having been found in the Egyptian tombs. It is very abundant in Egypt, and is the largest exogenous tree in that country. It is planted for shade, and attains a great age; one tree at Matharee, near Cairo, dating, according to popular legend, from the time of the flight of Joseph and Mary with the infant Jesus into Egypt: tradition says they rested under its shade.
Sycamore
The sycamore and sycamore trees have, by some commentators, been considered to be the same tree; but it is now admitted, on good authority, that they are distinct, and that the sycamore is the mulberry (Mores nigra) (see Mulberry Tree).
Mulberry (Heb., Becalm)
The black mulberry (Morns nigra), is supposed to be indigenous to Western Asia, and to have early become widely cultivated in various countries, not only for its fruit, but also for its leaves, used for the purpose of feeding silkworms: it belongs to the order Moraceœ, and has for its associates the fig and sycamore. In the New Testament it is called the sycamore tree (see Sycamore). It is a low-growing, thickheaded, stiff-branched, deciduous tree, seldom exceeding 30 feet in height, forming a stout trunk, and living to a great age. Its leaves are bluntly heart-shaped, somewhat lobed, stiff, and rough, and attached by a short firm foot-stalk. In summer it affords a dense shade.
On account of the nature of the leaves not being adapted to produce sound by the motion of the air, commentators have been led to doubt whether mulberry trees are alluded to in the above verse. Dr. Royle suggests that they were aspen trees (see Poplar).
This conclusion is not against the supposition that the mulberry was grown in Palestine: there is, however, no allusion to its being made use of for the production of silk; the first mention of that article being in Proverbs 31:2222She maketh herself coverings of tapestry; her clothing is silk and purple. (Proverbs 31:22). “She maketh herself coverings of tapestry; her clothing is silk and purple.” The word silk here is by some authors supposed to mean fine linen; but if silk was not made in Palestine in the time of Solomon, there is every reason to suppose that he obtained it by commerce from Persia, where it was early manufactured.
The next mention of silk is in Ezekiel 16:10,13; 42010I clothed thee also with broidered work, and shod thee with badgers' skin, and I girded thee about with fine linen, and I covered thee with silk. (Ezekiel 16:10)
13Thus wast thou decked with gold and silver; and thy raiment was of fine linen, and silk, and broidered work; thou didst eat fine flour, and honey, and oil: and thou wast exceeding beautiful, and thou didst prosper into a kingdom. (Ezekiel 16:13) years after Solomon: “I girded thee about with fine linen, and I covered thee with silk (meshi)... Thy raiment was of fine linen, and silk.” There is some doubt whether the Hebrew word meshi really means silk; but there is every reason to suppose that Ezekiel would become acquainted with silk during his captivity in Babylon. Theophrastus and other ancient writers speak of silk, which appears to have been introduced from Persia into Greece, 325 B.C. In Revelations 18:12, we read that silk was one of the rich and valuable commodities of Babylon, but it is not otherwise mentioned in the New Testament. There is no evidence to show when the mulberry first began to be cultivated in Palestine for rearing silkworms, though silk is now the staple production of the country, especially on the slopes of Mount Lebanon, and in other parts of the North.
The white-fruited mulberry (Moms alba), a native of India and China, is a taller-growing tree than the preceding, which it has entirely superseded for the feeding of silk-worms.
Silkworms were first brought to Europe in the sixth century, but sericulture appears to have made but slow progress for a long time. In 1146 the breeding of silkworms and manufacture of silk were extensively carried on in Sicily, and spread into Italy, Spain, and the south of France about 1510. It is reported that the black mulberry was first introduced into this country in 1548. The rearing of silkworms was greatly encouraged by James 1 (1603); but although since then companies have often been established, they have not succeeded, chiefly because of our late springs and occasional cold summers.
The black mulberry, however, fruits abundantly in this country, and is appreciated as a luscious dessert fruit. The juice of mulberries being red, like blood, was used to excite the elephants of Antiochus to battle, as stated in 1 Maccabees 11:34.
Vine (Heb., Gephan)
“And Noah began to be an husbandman, and he planted a vineyard: and he drank of the wine, and was drunken.”—Genesis 9:20-21; 234720And Noah began to be an husbandman, and he planted a vineyard: 21And he drank of the wine, and was drunken; and he was uncovered within his tent. (Genesis 9:20‑21) B.C. “In my dream, behold, a vine was before me; and in the vine were three branches: and it was as though it budded, and her blossoms shot forth; and the clusters thereof brought forth ripe grapes.”—Genesis 11:9-10; 17189Therefore is the name of it called Babel; because the Lord did there confound the language of all the earth: and from thence did the Lord scatter them abroad upon the face of all the earth. 10These are the generations of Shem: Shem was an hundred years old, and begat Arphaxad two years after the flood: (Genesis 11:9‑10) B.C. “And they came unto the brook of Eshcol, and cut down from thence a branch with one cluster of grapes, and they bare it between two upon a staff.”—Num. 13:23; 149023And they came unto the brook of Eshcol, and cut down from thence a branch with one cluster of grapes, and they bare it between two upon a staff; and they brought of the pomegranates, and of the figs. (Numbers 13:23) B.C.
The vine, Vitis vinifera, is a slender-growing shrub or small tree, producing long slender branches, which are furnished with tendrils by which it is supported; it has cordate, lobed, alternate leaves, and bunches of small, inconspicuous flowers, which become berries and are called bunches of grapes. The juice of the grapes is fermented, and becomes wine, or the grapes are dried and are called raisins.
The vine is considered to be a native of the countries bordering the Caspian, and of Armenia, and is the first plant recorded in the Bible as being cultivated. It appears, from the dream of Pharaoh’s butler, and from the paintings and sculptures on ancient Assyrian and Egyptian monuments, to have been early cultivated in. Egypt, Assyria, and Palestine; the latter country, the “Promised Land,” being called “a good land, a land of... vines, and fig trees, and pomegranates.”
The fact of the early cultivation of the vine in Palestine is supported by the numerous texts in the Bible in which the vine and its products, grapes and wine, are spoken of, and also by the numerous remains of wine presses cut out in the rocks.
The vine sometimes assumes the habit of a tree, the stems of one near Acre measuring 11 feet in diameter, the branches being trained on a trellis, and bearing bunches of grapes 10 to 12 pounds in weight, with berries of the size of small plums. In this country the vine is successfully cultivated under glass, and bunches have recently been produced in Scotland weighing 25 or 26 pounds. The weight of these bunches is sufficient to explain the necessity of the spies resorting to a staff, as stated in the above quotation.
The vine early spread westward, and is said to have been introduced into France 540 B.C.
It soon spread throughout the south of Europe, was introduced to England by the Romans, and is now extensively cultivated in America, Australia, South Africa, and other countries. Its successful cultivation, from a commercial point of view, is, however, restricted to a zone between 36° and 48° in both the Northern and Southern Hemisphere; the heat or cold beyond these limits being prejudicial to the perfecting of its fruits. In the southern parts of this country, in favorable seasons, the fruit ripens, and a wine of very inferior quality to that of the continent is made from it. The plums and currants of the shops come from the Ports of Spain and the Greek Islands; the currants are a small kind of grape extensively grown in the islands of Zante and Corinth, from the latter of which islands they obtained their shop-name “currants.”
Wild Grapes (Heb., Boser)
“My wellbeloved hath a vineyard in a very fruitful hill: and he fenced it, and gathered out the stones thereof, and planted it with the choicest vine, and built a tower in the midst of it, and also made a wine-press therein: and he looked that it should bring forth grapes, and it brought forth wild grapes.—Isa. 5:1-2; 7601Now will I sing to my wellbeloved a song of my beloved touching his vineyard. My wellbeloved hath a vineyard in a very fruitful hill: 2And he fenced it, and gathered out the stones thereof, and planted it with the choicest vine, and built a tower in the midst of it, and also made a winepress therein: and he looked that it should bring forth grapes, and it brought forth wild grapes. (Isaiah 5:1‑2) B.C.
In explanation of this, it may reasonably be supposed that the vines planted were truly the Vitis vinifera, but that they turned out to be an inferior variety, producing only small fruit, such as may be found on vines growing wild and not cultivated. The Rev. H. Tristram thinks they may have been the wild vine or fox grape, which has small, very acid, black fruit, and grows wild in hedges and other places in the Mediterranean regions, and which is no doubt the V. orientalis. This has compound leaves like the Virginian creeper, which some consider to be a species of Vitis.
Apples (Heb., Tappûach)
“A word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in pictures of silver.”—Prov. 25:11; 70011A word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in pictures of silver. (Proverbs 25:11) B.C. “As the apple tree among the trees of the wood, so is my beloved among the sons. I sat down under his shadow with great delight, and his fruit was sweet to my taste.” – Song of Sol. 2:3; 10143As the apple tree among the trees of the wood, so is my beloved among the sons. I sat down under his shadow with great delight, and his fruit was sweet to my taste. (Song of Solomon 2:3) B.C. “Comfort me with apples.”—Song of Sol. 2:5. 1014 B.C. “I raised thee up under the apple tree.”—Song of Sol. 8:5; 10145Who is this that cometh up from the wilderness, leaning upon her beloved? I raised thee up under the apple tree: there thy mother brought thee forth: there she brought thee forth that bare thee. (Song of Solomon 8:5) B.C. “The smell of thy nose like apples.”—Song of Sol. 7:8; 10148I said, I will go up to the palm tree, I will take hold of the boughs thereof: now also thy breasts shall be as clusters of the vine, and the smell of thy nose like apples; (Song of Solomon 7:8) B.C. “The vine is dried up, and the fig tree languisheth, the pomegranate tree, the palm tree also, and the apple tree, even all the trees of the field.”—Joel 1:12; 80012The vine is dried up, and the fig tree languisheth; the pomegranate tree, the palm tree also, and the apple tree, even all the trees of the field, are withered: because joy is withered away from the sons of men. (Joel 1:12) B.C.
The apple tree, Pyrus Malus, belongs to the family Pomaceœ, which include the pear, quince, medlar, hawthorn and its allies. In its wild state the apple is a native of this country, as also of many parts of Europe, but it is not recorded to have been known in Palestine in early times; it is, however, stated to be wild in some parts of Asia Minor, the Caucasus, and also in the Himalayas. Its fruit is small and acid, and is well known as the crab apple. As it is only within the last few hundred years that the fine sorts of both apples and pears we now possess have been obtained by skilful cultivation, they must have been unknown in the time of Solomon. It consequently becomes a question what was the Tappûach, of the Hebrews, translated apple tree and apples in our version of the Bible. On this point commentators differ much, some supposing the orange to have been the “apples of gold;” that fruit is, however, not known to have been cultivated in Palestine in the time of Solomon. Others suppose it to have been the citron, the delightful shade afforded by the tree, and the pleasant scent of the fruit, seeming to favor that view; but the acidity of the latter, even when ripe, does not agree with the words “sweet to my taste.”
Seven hundred and twenty-six years after the date of the Song of Solomon, Theophrastus, the Greek naturalist, calls the citron Median and Persian apples, and they were highly valued on account of their aromatic scent, as antidotes against poison, and to make the breath sweet; this leads to the inference that the word nose in the text would be more correctly translated breath.
Others, again, consider the Hebrew word should have been translated quince, Pyrus Cydonia, a tree common in Palestine; the fruit is generally about the size of an apple, but more in the form of a pear, of a yellowish color when ripe, and highly fragrant, even to excess, thus sufficiently agreeing with the “apples of gold,” but the quince is austere and harsh, and therefore does not agree with the words “sweet to my taste;” this, however, is said not to be the case with some kinds, especially when cultivated in warm countries.
Another point for consideration, which seems to show that the Tappûach was not our apple tree, is that although good kinds of apples have in modern times been introduced into Palestine, they are said not to thrive in the South, though they are successfully cultivated in the north, especially on Lebanon. Canon Tristram says, there “are a few trees in the gardens of Jaffa, but they do not thrive, and have a wretched woody fruit;” this might be expected, on considering that bananas ripen at Sidon, two degrees further North than Joppa, thus showing that the climate in the neighborhood of Jerusalem would be too hot for the successful cultivation of the apple tree. This is, however, contrary to a statement given by Dr. Thomson, in the “Land and the Book,” at page 545. He says that Askelon “is especially celebrated for its apples, which are the largest and best I have ever seen in this country.” It is, however, generally believed that he was mistaken, and that what he saw were quinces and not apples.
Judging from what has been stated above, it will be seen that the apple tree known to Solomon and that spoken of two hundred years later by Joel could not be the apple tree of the present day.
The latest opinion as to the identity of the apple, and, perhaps, the correct one, is that of the Rev. H. B. Tristram, who says, “The apricot is most abundant in the Holy Land, and meets all the requirements of the context, and is the only tree that does so, but everywhere it is common, and perhaps, with the single exception of the fig, the most abundant fruit of the country. In highlands and lowlands alike, by the shores of the Mediterranean, and on the banks of the Jordan, in the nooks of Judea, under the heights of Lebanon, in the recesses of Galilee, and in the glades of Gilead, the apricot flourishes and yields a crop of prodigious abundance. Many times have we pitched our tents in their shade. ‘I sat down under his shadow with great delight, and his fruit was sweet to my taste.’ The smell of thy nose (shall be) like apples. There can scarcely be a more deliciously perfumed fruit than the apricot, and its branches laden with its golden fruit may well be compared to apples of gold,’ and its pale leaves to pictures of silver.”
The word apple is a very general term for the smooth globular fruits of many plants, such as Adam’s apple, Citrus Limetta, custard apple, Anona, love apple, Lycopersicum esculentum, Mammee apple, Mammea americana, and others.
Pomegranate (Heb., Rimmon)
“And beneath upon the hem of it thou shalt make pomegranates of blue, and of purple, and of scarlet, round about the hem thereof; and bells of gold between them round about.”—Exod. 28:33; 149133And beneath upon the hem of it thou shalt make pomegranates of blue, and of purple, and of scarlet, round about the hem thereof; and bells of gold between them round about: (Exodus 28:33) B.C. “And they brought of the pomegranates, and of the figs.”—Num. 13:23; 149023And they came unto the brook of Eshcol, and cut down from thence a branch with one cluster of grapes, and they bare it between two upon a staff; and they brought of the pomegranates, and of the figs. (Numbers 13:23) B.C. “And wherefore have ye made us to come up out of Egypt, to bring us in unto this evil place? It is no place of seed, or of figs, or of vines, or of pomegranates; neither is there any water to drink.”—Num. 20:5; 14535And wherefore have ye made us to come up out of Egypt, to bring us in unto this evil place? it is no place of seed, or of figs, or of vines, or of pomegranates; neither is there any water to drink. (Numbers 20:5) B.C. “A land of wheat, and barley, and vines, and fig trees, and pomegranates.”—Deut. 8:8; 14518A land of wheat, and barley, and vines, and fig trees, and pomegranates; a land of oil olive, and honey; (Deuteronomy 8:8) B.C. “And be made the pillars, and two rows round about upon the one net-work, to cover the chapiters that were upon the top, with pomegranates.” 1 Kings 7:18; 100518And he made the pillars, and two rows round about upon the one network, to cover the chapiters that were upon the top, with pomegranates: and so did he for the other chapiter. (1 Kings 7:18) B.C. “I would cause thee to drink of spiced wine of the juice of my pomegranate.”—Song of Sol. 8:2; 10142I would lead thee, and bring thee into my mother's house, who would instruct me: I would cause thee to drink of spiced wine of the juice of my pomegranate. (Song of Solomon 8:2) B.C.
The pomegranate in the above quotations is understood to be the fruit of the pomegranate tree (Punicum Granatum), a small bush-like tree, not exceeding 20 or 30 feet in height; it has oblong, lanceolate, entire leaves, about the size of tea-tree leaves, and showy red, yellow, or white bell-shaped flowers; the fruit is as large as a middle-sized apple, has a hard rind of a bright red or yellowish color when ripe, and is crowned with the permanent lobes of the calyx, which resembles a rosette, hence its importance as an ornament, as mentioned in the above quotations. Its flowers served as a pattern for the “golden bells.”
The pomegranate tree is a native of Asia from northern India westward to Egypt, and of countries on both sides of the Mediterranean. It is common in Palestine, both wild and cultivated.
The pulp of the fruit is highly prized for making cooling drinks and sherbet, as in the time of Solomon; and the rind for tanning the red Morocco leather.
It was introduced into this country about 300 years ago; it is not quite hardy, but grows and flowers freely on south walls. In the severe frost of January, 1838, all old trees in the neighborhood of London were killed to the ground.
The genus Punica belongs to the family Myrtaceœ, but possesses some special points of difference which has led some botanists to consider it the type of a distinct family, termed Granataceœ.
Almonds (Heb., Shâked)
“Carry down the man a present, a little balm, and a little honey, spices, and myrrh, nuts, and almonds.”—Gen. 43:11; 170711And their father Israel said unto them, If it must be so now, do this; take of the best fruits in the land in your vessels, and carry down the man a present, a little balm, and a little honey, spices, and myrrh, nuts, and almonds: (Genesis 43:11) B.C. “Three bowls made like unto almonds, with a knop and a flower in one branch; and three bowls made like almonds in the other branch.”—Ex. 25:33; 149133Three bowls made like unto almonds, with a knop and a flower in one branch; and three bowls made like almonds in the other branch, with a knop and a flower: so in the six branches that come out of the candlestick. (Exodus 25:33) B.C. “And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying, Speak unto the children of Israel, and take of every one of them a rod according to the house of their fathers, of all their princes according to the house of their fathers twelve rods; write thou every man’s name upon his rod. And thou shalt write Aaron’s name upon the rod of Levi: for one rod shall be for the head of the house of their fathers.”—Num. 17:1-3; 14711And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying, 2Speak unto the children of Israel, and take of every one of them a rod according to the house of their fathers, of all their princes according to the house of their fathers twelve rods: write thou every man's name upon his rod. 3And thou shalt write Aaron's name upon the rod of Levi: for one rod shall be for the head of the house of their fathers. (Numbers 17:1‑3) B.C. “And Moses spake unto the children of Israel, and every one of their princes gave him a rod apiece, for each prince one, according to their fathers’ houses, even twelve rods: and the rod of Aaron was among their rods. And Moses laid up the rods before the Lord in the tabernacle of witness. And it came to pass, that on the morrow Moses went into the tabernacle of witness; and behold, the rod of Aaron for the house of Levi was budded, and brought forth buds, and bloomed blossoms, and yielded almonds.”—Num. 17:6-8; 14716And Moses spake unto the children of Israel, and every one of their princes gave him a rod apiece, for each prince one, according to their fathers' houses, even twelve rods: and the rod of Aaron was among their rods. 7And Moses laid up the rods before the Lord in the tabernacle of witness. 8And it came to pass, that on the morrow Moses went into the tabernacle of witness; and, behold, the rod of Aaron for the house of Levi was budded, and brought forth buds, and bloomed blossoms, and yielded almonds. (Numbers 17:6‑8) B.C.
The almond, Amygdalus communis, is a small tree, belonging to the family Drupaceœ, its allies being the peach, nectarine, and apricot. Like them, it is supposed to be a native of Western Temperate India, or Persia, and in early times to have spread westward, and become common in Palestine at the time Jacob sent for corn into Egypt. His sending a present of almonds shows that it did not then grow in Egypt: it may readily be inferred, however, that it was introduced and had become common during the two hundred years residence of Jacob’s descendants in that country; thus they had become acquainted with the form of its flower and fruit, and adopted them as models for ornamenting the bowls and knobs of the golden candlestick. If such was not the case, it is difficult to explain how they became acquainted with the almond, as the tree did not grow in the Wilderness where they were encamped when the candlestick was ordered to be made. This equally applies to the twelve rods which (as one of them brought forth almonds), it is presumed, were all of the same kind, and cut from one or more almond trees. As this could not be done in the Wilderness, we are led to the supposition that the rods were brought with them from Egypt. With regard to this subject, Josephus says Moses “only desired the heads of the tribes to bring their rods with the names of their tribes inscribed upon them.” He further says that on the rods being brought out of the tabernacle all were in the same state as when put in, except Aaron’s, on which the people saw “buds and branches, with ripe fruits upon them: they were almonds, the rod having been cut out of that tree.”
Dr. Kitto says “the rods or staves were doubtless official ensigns of the authority with which the heads of tribes were invested. Hence the Scripture frequently uses the word rod as equivalent to scepter. These staves were, of course, dry, and had probably been for years in use; and that such should ‘blossom and bear fruit again’ is a natural impossibility; it is, therefore, a greater miracle than if the rods had been freshly cut from a tree.”
The Almond early spread throughout Southern and Middle Europe, and reached this country about 300 years ago. It is perfectly hardy, forming a small, spreading, branching tree, seldom exceeding 12 to 15 feet in height. It flowers early in spring, producing numerous pink blossoms before the leaves, and is very ornamental. Its fruit is like that of a peach, but of an oval form; and although it attains the full size here, our summers are not sufficiently hot to mature it.
The greatest importation of almonds comes to this country from the Mediterranean ports of Spain, chiefly from Valencia; the best so-called Jordan almonds come from Malaga; and none now from the country of the Jordan.
Nuts
Two Hebrew names have been translated nuts, the Arabic equivalents of which are found to be the names of two distinct nut bearing trees, one being the Pistacio nut; the other, the walnut.
1. Pistacio Nut (Heb., Botnîm)
“Carry down the man a present, a little balm, and a little honey, spices, and myrrh, nuts, and almonds.”—Gen. 43:11; 170711And their father Israel said unto them, If it must be so now, do this; take of the best fruits in the land in your vessels, and carry down the man a present, a little balm, and a little honey, spices, and myrrh, nuts, and almonds: (Genesis 43:11) B.C.
It is admitted by most commentators that the nuts of Jacob were the fruit of Pistacia vera, a small tree of the family Terebinthaceœ, having shining, winged, evergreen leaves; its fruit being a small, dry, egg-shaped drupe, the fleshy cotyledons of which, enclosed in a brittle shell, constitute the eatable nut. The tree is a native of Western Asia, and is wild in many rocky parts of Palestine. It is cultivated for the sake of its nuts about Damascus. It is also now common in Southern Europe, having been introduced about the commencement of the Christian Era.
The nuts constitute an article of commerce, and come to this country from ports in the Mediterannean, those of Aleppo being celebrated for their fine quality.
The tree is not hardy enough to bear the cold climate of this country, but specimens of it are to be seen in the conservatory at Kew.
2. Walnut (Heb., Agôz)
The nuts of Solomon are generally admitted to be those of the walnut tree, Juglans regia, a large tree, with winged resinous leaves, belonging to the family Juglandeœ. It is found wild in many parts of Northern India, extending eastwards through the Himalayas to China, and to Western Asia through Persia; in early times it appears to have become naturalized (if not originally wild) in Lebanon and some parts of Gilead. Its cultivation seems to have been favored in Eastern countries for the sake of its nuts, even in the time of Solomon, and Josephus states that in his time old trees were abundant in Palestine, especially by the Lake of Genneserath. Solomon’s nut garden is supposed to have formed part of his gardens at Etham, six miles from Jerusalem; although no vestige of these gardens remains, the locality is, however, still a garden. Dr. Boner says, “It is one of the sweetest valleys into which the eye can look, a well-watered orchard covered with every goodly fruit tree that Syria nourishes.”
The walnut tree is now abundant in Middle and Southern Europe, and the nuts form an extensive article of trade, not only for food, but also for the oil they contain, which, when refined, is little inferior to olive oil. This oil is largely used in the manufacture of soap. Although a considerable quantity of walnuts are produced in this country, they, nevertheless, fall far short of the demand, large supplies being imported from France, Belgium, Holland, the two Sicilies, and other places.
It is recorded to have been introduced into England about three hundred years ago, and many trees probably of that age are now to be found.
Incense
The burning of sweet-smelling substances has formed an important part of the religious rites of millions of people of the principal nations of the earth, in the worship of idols from time immemorial, as is shown by sculpture and paintings on the monuments of ancient Assyria and Egypt. No doubt the Israelites became acquainted with the custom during their sojourn in Egypt, for, during the first year after their exodus, we read, “And thou shalt make an altar to burn incense upon: of shittim wood shalt thou make it.”—Ex. 30:11And thou shalt make an altar to burn incense upon: of shittim wood shalt thou make it. (Exodus 30:1). “And Aaron shall burn thereon sweet incense every morning: when he dresseth the lamps, he shall burn incense upon it.”—Ex. 30:77And Aaron shall burn thereon sweet incense every morning: when he dresseth the lamps, he shall burn incense upon it. (Exodus 30:7). “And when Aaron lighteth the lamps at even, he shall burn incense upon it, a perpetual incense before the Lord throughout your generations.”—Exod. 30:88And when Aaron lighteth the lamps at even, he shall burn incense upon it, a perpetual incense before the Lord throughout your generations. (Exodus 30:8). “And the Lord said unto Moses, Take unto thee sweet spices, stacte, and onycha, and galbanum; these sweet spices with pure frankincense.”—Ex. 30:34; 149134And the Lord said unto Moses, Take unto thee sweet spices, stacte, and onycha, and galbanum; these sweet spices with pure frankincense: of each shall there be a like weight: (Exodus 30:34) B.C. Thus, the burning of sweet-smelling substances under the name of incense, became a divinely established ritual, and rules were laid down for its observance, which on all occasions was to be an offering to God, who brought them out of the land of Egypt. In after times, however, these rules were sometimes departed from, the first occasion being in the time of king Ahaz, as we read that “they (the children of Israel) set them up images and groves in every high hill, and under every green tree: and there they burnt incense in all the high places, as did the heathen.”—2 Kings 17:10-11; 72110And they set them up images and groves in every high hill, and under every green tree: 11And there they burnt incense in all the high places, as did the heathen whom the Lord carried away before them; and wrought wicked things to provoke the Lord to anger: (2 Kings 17:10‑11) B.C. Also “And he put down the idolatrous priests, whom the kings of Judah had ordained to burn incense in the high places in the cities of Judah, and in the places round about Jerusalem; them also that burned incense unto Baal, to the sun, and to the moon, and to the planets, and to all the host of heaven.”—2 Kings 23:5; 6245And he put down the idolatrous priests, whom the kings of Judah had ordained to burn incense in the high places in the cities of Judah, and in the places round about Jerusalem; them also that burned incense unto Baal, to the sun, and to the moon, and to the planets, and to all the host of heaven. (2 Kings 23:5) B.C. They thus fell back to the customs of the Assyrians and Egyptians in their worship of idols. Modern history teaches us that the burning of incense to idols was early practiced in China, India, and other nations of the East; and in the worship of the true God the custom has been adopted by the Greek, Roman Catholic, and other churches.
Besides the spices mentioned in the above verse, other kinds are used in other countries; and even aromatic woods, such as the Agallochum of India (see Aloes), and the sandal wood, Santalum album, in China; the joss sticks (candles) burnt by the Chinese in their temples being made of the sawdust of sandal wood, mixed with swine’s dung. These, on being lighted, emit a fragrant smoke, and, on beholding it curling heavenward, the worshippers presume they have performed their religious duties by thus offering up incense to their deity. (For more particulars, see Frankincense).
Frankincense (Heb., Lebonah)
Much uncertainty prevails as to the tree or trees that produced the aromatic substance called frankincense, as also to the country from which it was obtained. It is first mentioned along with other odoriferous substances in the following verse: “Take unto thee sweet spices, stacte, and onycha, and galbanum; these sweet spices with pure frankincense. And thou shalt make it a perfume, a confection after the art of the apothecary.”—Exod. 30:34-35; 149134And the Lord said unto Moses, Take unto thee sweet spices, stacte, and onycha, and galbanum; these sweet spices with pure frankincense: of each shall there be a like weight: 35And thou shalt make it a perfume, a confection after the art of the apothecary, tempered together, pure and holy: (Exodus 30:34‑35) B.C. Considering that the Israelites had not been more than a year out of Egypt when the above was spoken, and that they must have become acquainted with these substances while in that country, as no tree nor herb native of Egypt has been identified as capable of producing such aromatic substances as those above mentioned, we must conclude that they were obtained from other countries by trade. It was at first, and for long supposed, that frankincense was the produce of a species of Juniperus, J. lycia, or J. Oxycedrus, and that it came from Lebanon, hence the Hebrew word lebonah; if so, it could readily be conveyed by merchants of Tire to Egypt. It is generally understood that frankincense is a resinous matter, exuding from trees; but as little or no resinous matter exudes from any species of Juniper (their wood and branches, however, emit an aromatic odor when burnt), it is not at all improbable that the frankincense known to the Israelites at that time might be the wood of some coniferous tree, or even the resin of the fir (Pinus halepensis). That there was a tree known in Palestine as the frankincense tree seems evident from the following: “And as the flower of roses in the spring of the year, as lilies by the rivers of waters, and as the branches of the frankincense tree in the time of summer.”—Eccl. 1:88All things are full of labor; man cannot utter it: the eye is not satisfied with seeing, nor the ear filled with hearing. (Ecclesiastes 1:8) (Apocrypha). What tree this was cannot now be ascertained.
If some such substance was not the frankincense used by the Israelites shortly after they came out of Egypt, then we must presume that they were acquainted with the resinous substance now known as true frankincense, the produce of trees natives of Southern Arabia and the opposite coast of Africa, between 800 and 900 miles south of the land of Goshen. This, consequently, would have been obtained by trade, and was no doubt the frankincense used in later times in Palestine; as we read: “Who is this that cometh out of the wilderness like pillars of smoke, perfumed with myrrh and frankincense, with all powders of the merchant?”—Song of Sol. 3:6; 10146Who is this that cometh out of the wilderness like pillars of smoke, perfumed with myrrh and frankincense, with all powders of the merchant? (Song of Solomon 3:6) B.C. “Spikenard and saffron; calamus and cinnamon, with all trees of frankincense.”—Song of Sol. 4:14; 101414Spikenard and saffron; calamus and cinnamon, with all trees of frankincense; myrrh and aloes, with all the chief spices: (Song of Solomon 4:14) B.C. “All they from Sheba shall come: they shall bring gold and incense.”—Isa. 40:6; 6986The voice said, Cry. And he said, What shall I cry? All flesh is grass, and all the goodliness thereof is as the flower of the field: (Isaiah 40:6) B.C.
There can be no doubt but that the frankincense here spoken of came from Arabia, and this view is confirmed by Theophrastus and other ancient writers, to whom frankincense appears to have been well known.
It was in more modern times supposed to be the produce of Boswellia thurifera, a tree of the myrrh family, Amyridaceœ, a native of Coromandel, and other parts of India. It yields an odoriferous gum resin called “Gogul,” known in the Bombay bazaars as olibanum or frankincense. Within the last few years, however, true olibanum or frankincense has been discovered to be the produce of at least three species of Boswellia, full botanical descriptions of which (by Dr. G. Birdwood) appeared in the twenty-seventh volume of the Transactions of the Lineman Society, published in 1869. Dr. G. Birdwood ten years previously was superintendent of the Agri-Horticultural Society’s gardens in Bombay, and, having procured specimens of the plants from Arabia and also from the Soumali coast of Africa, he was thus enabled to determine the true source of the, olibanum or frankincense of modern commerce. He has given a full account of this under the word Perfumes in the “Bible Educator” see Incense). The European frankincense, so called, is a gummy exudation of the common spruce fir, the American Pinus Tœdœ, and the American Arbor Vita, Thuja occidentalis; indeed, all resin-producing coniferous trees may be called frankincense trees.
Balm (Heb., Tzori)
“And, behold, a company of Ishmeelites came from Gilead with their camels, bearing spicery and balm and myrrh.”—Gen. 37:25; 172925And they sat down to eat bread: and they lifted up their eyes and looked, and, behold, a company of Ishmeelites came from Gilead with their camels bearing spicery and balm and myrrh, going to carry it down to Egypt. (Genesis 37:25) B.C. “Carry down the man a present, a little balm.”—Gen. 43:11; 170711And their father Israel said unto them, If it must be so now, do this; take of the best fruits in the land in your vessels, and carry down the man a present, a little balm, and a little honey, spices, and myrrh, nuts, and almonds: (Genesis 43:11) B.C. “Is there no balm in Gilead; is there no physician there?”—Jer. 8:22; 60022Is there no balm in Gilead; is there no physician there? why then is not the health of the daughter of my people recovered? (Jeremiah 8:22) B.C. “Go up into Gilead, and take balm, O virgin, the daughter of Egypt.”—Jer. 46:11; 60711Go up into Gilead, and take balm, O virgin, the daughter of Egypt: in vain shalt thou use many medicines; for thou shalt not be cured. (Jeremiah 46:11) B.C. “Judah, and the land of Israel, they were thy merchants: they traded in thy market wheat of Minnith, and Pannag, and honey, and oil, and balm.”—Ezek. 27:17; 588 B.C.
Although the word balm does not occur from its first mention in Genesis till the time of Jeremiah, a period of more than 1,000 years, there is but little doubt that the balm mentioned in the above verses was the produce of Palestine; it is, however, difficult to determine from what source it was obtained. It is considered by most botanists to have been the sap of the Lentisk tree, Pistacia Lentiscus, a small tree of the family Terebinthaceœ, not exceeding 15 or 20 feet in height, and about a foot in diameter, having winged smooth leaves of a pale color, and inconspicuous flowers. It is a native of Western Asia, and abounds throughout Palestine, especially in the rocky country of Gilead; it has been introduced and has become naturalized in the Greek Islands and on the coasts of the Mediterranean. It yields a balsamic sap, which is obtained by making incisions in the stems, from which the sap flows. This is known in commerce by the name of mastick; it forms a considerable article of trade, and is used as a varnish.
Another plant, Balanites Ægyptiaca, has also a claim to be viewed as the plant producing the balm of the Ishmeelites. It belongs to the family Simarubaceœ, and is a scrubby, spiny, uninviting-looking shrub, sometimes attaining the size of a small tree; it has leaves about the size of those of the box tree, growing in pairs; and tufts of inconspicuous, small flowers; the fruit is about the size of that of the walnut tree, and when ripe is of a greyish color.
It abounds throughout Egypt and Northern Africa, also in Palestine, in the Plains of Jericho, and in the hot plain bordering the Dead Sea. It is truly a desert-loving plant, and has extended into India, where it is held in religious veneration by the Mohammedans.
By pounding and boiling the fruit an oil is obtained, of which a great quantity is prepared by the Arabs of the present day, and sold to pilgrims as “balm of Gilead” and “oil of Jericho;” it is considered to possess highly medicinal and healing properties. In several parts of Africa an intoxicating drink is made from the fruit by fermentation. (This is probably one of the balsam trees spoken of by Josephus under the name of myrobalanum, growing near Jericho.)
Balm of Mecca and Jericho
Although balm is not mentioned in the above quotation, it appears that an aromatic gum resin, known as balm, or, as Josephus calls it, “balsam,” was known in the time of Solomon, if not earlier, and was introduced from Arabia. Josephus, speaking of the presents brought by the Queen of Sheba to King Solomon, says, “They say also that we possess the root of that balsam which our country still bears, by this woman’s gift.” By this it appears that an aromatic balsam tree was introduced into Palestine, and being highly prized by Solomon, came to be extensively cultivated about Jericho. It is, however, curious that no mention is made of these balsam trees from the time of Solomon to that of Josephus, a period of about 1,000 years, unless it be the balm spoken of by Ezekiel. It appears that the balm or balsam trees of Jericho were highly valued by the Roman conquerors, as branches of the trees were carried to Rome as trophies of victories over the Jews; and after their subjection by Titus Vespasian in A.D. 70, he placed an imperial guard to protect the plantations from being destroyed by the conquered Jews. In time these plantations were neglected, and no vestige of them remained at the time of the Crusades, Palestine having then come under the rule of the Turks.
Although it was well understood that Solomon’s balsam tree came from Arabia, it was for a long time a matter of doubt what tree produced this highly valued balsam. Within the past few years it has been satisfactorily determined by Dr. G. Birdwood, who had the opportunity of becoming acquainted with the aromatic resins brought from India, Arabia, and Africa, to the bazaars and store houses of Bombay. One of these resins he considers to be the balm of the Bible, namely, the product of Balsamodendron Gileadense and of B. opobalsamum, which two plants furnish the commercial balm of Gilead of the present day.
They belong to the myrrh family, Amyridaceœ, which consists of trees and shrubs with winged leaves, all possessing a more or less aromatic principle. B. Gileadense is a tall, stiff-branched tree, native of Arabia, abounding in the mountains of Yeman, which are little less than 1,000 miles from Gilead; therefore it may be safely said that it could not have furnished the balm which the Israelites were carrying from Gilead into Egypt, or that which Jacob sent into that country.
The balm is obtained by making incisions in the stem and branches of the trees, the rap exudes, soon hardens into small irregular nodules, and is then collected, and conveyed to Bombay, from whence it is shipped to Europe—under the name of “balm of Gilead,” or, more correctly, “balm of Mecca.” It must be considered unfortunate that the tree has been and still continues to be called Balsamodendron Gileadense, for, as above shown, it can have nothing to do with Gilead.
As a matter of course, the two balms above described have no relation whatever with the common pot-herb balm, Melissa officinalis, cultivated in our gardens, nor with the sweet smelling greenhouse plant known by the name of “balm of Gilead,” Dracocephallum canariense, a native of the Canary Islands.
Myrrh, No. 1 (Hob., Lôt)
“A company of Ishmeelites came from Gilead with their camels, bearing spicery and balm and myrrh (let) going to carry it down to Egypt.”—Gen. 37:25; 172925And they sat down to eat bread: and they lifted up their eyes and looked, and, behold, a company of Ishmeelites came from Gilead with their camels bearing spicery and balm and myrrh, going to carry it down to Egypt. (Genesis 37:25) B.C. “Carry down the man a present, a little balm, and a little honey, spices, and myrrh (lôt), nuts, and almonds.”—Gen. 43:11; 170711And their father Israel said unto them, If it must be so now, do this; take of the best fruits in the land in your vessels, and carry down the man a present, a little balm, and a little honey, spices, and myrrh, nuts, and almonds: (Genesis 43:11) B.C.
In the Hebrew text of these two verses the word lôt has been wrongly translated myrrh, a very different substance from that which is considered to be true myrrh, mor (afterward mentioned). Lôt is by most authorities considered to be the Hebrew name of the gum we call Ladanum, which is an exudation from several species of rock rose, Cistus, the principal being C. villosus, C. creticus, and C. salvifolius. They are shrubby plants, with simple, entire leaves, and white or pink single rose-like flowers, abounding in the rocky country of Gilead and other parts of Palestine. These, with the beautiful Cistus ladaniferus, well known in this country as “gum cistus,” are also indigenous to the south of Europe and islands of the Mediterranean. It is principally from these species that the gum called Ladanum is obtained. It consists of a viscid exudation from the stems and leaves of the plant, and is collected during the heat of the day by drawing a bunch of leathern thongs or some woven material to which the gum adheres, over the bushes. It also adheres to the beards of goats, browsing amongst the bushes, and from the beards it is scraped off. This gum was once held in high medicinal repute, but is now chiefly used in perfumery. It may be considered to be the myrrh of the Ishmeelites and Jacob. The genus Cistus belongs to the family Cistaceœ, which consists of a considerable number of species, natives of the countries bordering the Mediterranean. It also contains the extensive genus Helianthemum, which is represented in Britain by the pretty small evergreen-leaved prostrate shrub, H. vulgare, and its numerous varieties, and by three much rarer species.
Myrrh, No. 2 (Heb., Môr)
“Take thou also unto thee principal spices, of pure myrrh five hundred shekels, and of sweet cinnamon half so much... and of sweet calamus two hundred and fifty shekels.”—Ex. 30:23; 149123Take thou also unto thee principal spices, of pure myrrh five hundred shekels, and of sweet cinnamon half so much, even two hundred and fifty shekels, and of sweet calamus two hundred and fifty shekels, (Exodus 30:23) B.C. “All thy garments smell of myrrh, and aloes, and cassia.”—Psa. 45:88All thy garments smell of myrrh, and aloes, and cassia, out of the ivory palaces, whereby they have made thee glad. (Psalm 45:8). “And when they had opened their treasures, they presented unto him gifts; gold, and frankincense, and myrrh” (Greek, smyrna)—Matt. 2:1111And when they were come into the house, they saw the young child with Mary his mother, and fell down, and worshipped him: and when they had opened their treasures, they presented unto him gifts; gold, and frankincense, and myrrh. (Matthew 2:11). “Nicodemus... brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes, about an hundred pound weight.”—John 19:39; 3339And there came also Nicodemus, which at the first came to Jesus by night, and brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes, about an hundred pound weight. (John 19:39) A.D.
Two Hebrew words have, in our version of the Bible, been translated myrrh, lôt and môr; the first occurs in Genesis 37:2525And they sat down to eat bread: and they lifted up their eyes and looked, and, behold, a company of Ishmeelites came from Gilead with their camels bearing spicery and balm and myrrh, going to carry it down to Egypt. (Genesis 37:25), and Genesis 43:1111And their father Israel said unto them, If it must be so now, do this; take of the best fruits in the land in your vessels, and carry down the man a present, a little balm, and a little honey, spices, and myrrh, nuts, and almonds: (Genesis 43:11), and is well ascertained to be the product of a different plant from that of the myrrh of the above verses (see Myrrh, No. 1). These verses show that the myrrh spoken of was held in high esteem as a perfume, and according to all writers, ancient and modern, there is every reason to believe that it was a gummy exudation obtained from certain trees, natives of the warmer parts of Arabia and opposite coast of Africa. No doubt it was obtained by the Israelites by commerce. It is now ascertained to be the produce of several species of Balsamodendron, belonging to the order Amyridaceœ. The species from which myrrh is now collected are B. myrrha, B. kataf, and B. opobalsamum; they are low, scrubby, thick, stiff-branched, three-leaved shrubs or small trees, growing in rocky places and on limestone hills, on the Soumali coast of Africa. The balsam exudes naturally from the stems and branches, but more abundantly from artificial incisions. It is a sticky white gum, which soon hardens, and is then collected in the same manner as the “balm of Gilead” (see Balm).
There appears to be another kind of myrrh, as we read in Song of Solomon 1:1313A bundle of myrrh is my wellbeloved unto me; he shall lie all night betwixt my breasts. (Song of Solomon 1:13): “A bundle of myrrh is my wellbeloved unto me.” If the word bundle might be read lump, there would be no difficulty in believing that the word here mentioned referred to a gummy matter, as for example, the balsam just spoken of, which might be formed into a lump but not into a bundle. The word bundle leads to the inference that the stalks of some sweet-smelling herb are alluded to, such as that cultivated in gardens under the name of myrrh, Myrrhis, odorata.
Myrrh is again mentioned in a particular way: “And they gave him to drink wine mingled with myrrh”—Mark. 15:23. In Matthew it is said “vinegar mingled with gall.” This leads us to suppose that the myrrh here spoken of was disagreeable to the taste, and of the nature of gall.
Linnæus has adopted Myrrhis and Smyrnium as the names of two genera of Umbelliferœ, of which two there are several species; they are perennial plants, possessing strong aromatic properties. M. odorata, garden myrrh, and S. Olusatrum, called Alexanders, being natives of Britain, and quite distinct from the true myrrh of Arabia, as above described.
Aloes (Heb., Ahâlim)
“All thy garments smell of myrrh, and aloes, and cassia.”—Psa. 45:88All thy garments smell of myrrh, and aloes, and cassia, out of the ivory palaces, whereby they have made thee glad. (Psalm 45:8). “I have perfumed my bed with myrrh, aloes, and cinnamon.”—Prov. 7:17; 100017I have perfumed my bed with myrrh, aloes, and cinnamon. (Proverbs 7:17) B.C. “Myrrh and aloes, with all the chief spices.”—Cor. 4:14; 1014 B.C. “And brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes.”—John 19:39; 3339And there came also Nicodemus, which at the first came to Jesus by night, and brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes, about an hundred pound weight. (John 19:39) A.D.
The word aloes, as translated from the Hebrew, implies a lofty, fragrant tree, and as no tree of that nature has been identified as a native of Palestine, and as we find aloes always mentioned in connection with aromatic spices, several of which (such as cassia and cinnamon), are not produced in Palestine, it is therefore reasonable to suppose that aloes was procured from India by commerce through Arabia or the Red Sea.
It is now generally admitted to have been the wood of Aquilaria Agallocha, a lofty tree, at a height of one hundred or more feet, a native of Silhet and other parts of India, Cochin China, and the Malay Islands, where it is known by the names of Aquila, eagle-wood, and Aloes-wood. The wood (particularly the darker part) is fragrant, especially when in a state of decay, and is then much valued.
Aquilaria belongs to a small family of plants called Aquilariaceœ, consisting of ten or a dozen species, all lofty trees, natives of the warmer parts of Asia.
Another lofty tree, Aloexylon Agallochum, known by the name of calambac, a native of Cochin China, is described as having fragrant wood, and is as much esteemed as the wood of Aquilaria. It belongs to the family Leguminosœ.
A tree more easily obtained by the people of Palestine would be the sandal wood, Santalum album, a native of the peninsula of India, and perhaps more generally used for its fragrant wood by all Oriental nations than the two preceding. It is very probable that it was the tree that furnished the sweet-smelling aloes of Solomon.
It must be understood that the Linnæan genus Aloe of the present day, of which there is a considerable number of species, has no connection with the above. It consists of succulent leaved plants of the Lily family, all, with the exception of one, natives of South and East Africa, A. vulgaris being recorded as indigenous in the East Indies. Their inspissated juice forms the purgative drug known as aloes. The original and best comes from the island of Socotra, lying on the East coast of Africa, at the mouth of the Red Sea. This drug was known to the ancients, and was used by the Egyptians in embalming; it was probably the “aloes” brought by Nicodemus to embalm Christ. Its smell, however, is not a very agreeable one, and the taste is very bitter. It is now principally used as a horse medicine.
Cassia (1) (Heb., Kiddah)
“Take thou also unto thee principal spices, of pure myrrh five hundred shekels, and of sweet cinnamon half so much, even two hundred and fifty shekels, and of sweet calamus two hundred and fifty shekels, and of cassia five hundred shekels.”—Ex. 30:23-24; 149123Take thou also unto thee principal spices, of pure myrrh five hundred shekels, and of sweet cinnamon half so much, even two hundred and fifty shekels, and of sweet calamus two hundred and fifty shekels, 24And of cassia five hundred shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary, and of oil olive an hin: (Exodus 30:23‑24) B.C.
As the plants producing these spices are not natives of either Egypt or Syria, but of India and Ceylon, it is evident that Moses must have obtained them by commerce. There is every reason to believe that cassia came from Ceylon, where it is still cultivated for the sake of its aromatic bark. Botanically it is known by the name of Laurus cassia, and is a small tree belonging to the family of Lauraceœ. It is closely allied to the Cinnamon tree L. cinnamomum.
The leaves of both are alternate on the branches, 5 to 6 inches in length and 2 inches in breadth, smooth, with well-marked longitudinal veins, those of L. cassia being round, obtuse, while those of L. cinnamomum terminate in an acute point. The bark is obtained by making longitudinal incisions, in the branches, when it peels off, and in drying rolls up in the form of a pipe, varying in size according to the size of the branch, and in quality according to the thickness or thinness of the bark. Thus prepared this forms the Cassia and Cinnamon of commerce, which are also now procured from other Indian islands besides Ceylon.
Cassia bark is, however, always considered inferior to that of true cinnamon. Both species are cultivated in the hothouses at Kew, and are represented in the open air by the sweet bay tree, L. nobilis, and the sassafras tree, L. Sassafras, a tall tree 40 to 50 feet high, with aromatic bark, a native of North America.
Cassia (2) (Heb., Ketzioth)
It is difficult to say that the word ketzioth is another Hebrew word for the cassia above described, or that it is not correctly translated, and means some other plant; it is, however, generally believed to be the latter, though ancient Greek writers differ much as to what the plant is. Some suppose it to be iris florentina, well known as sweet-smelling orris root, a native of the south of Europe, while later writers consider it to be, the sweet smelling costus of the ancient Greek writers, known as Indian orris, which has in modern times been ascertained to be the root of Aplotaxis Lappa (Aucklandia Costus of some authors), a composite plant, native of Cashmere and parts of the Himalayas. It is a strong-rooted perennial plant, having large, slashed, radiate leaves, from which rises a thistle-like stem 5 to 6 feet high, bearing heads of thistle-like flowers of a purple color; the root is yearly collected, and forms a considerable article of trade, being conveyed through the Punjaub to Bombay, where it finds a market, and whence it is shipped to ports in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and eastward to China. It is used medicinally, but its principal use is as a perfume, and in China as incense in temples. It is quite possible that it was known to Solomon. Linnæus applied the name Cassia to a genus of leguminous plants, which includes the plant yielding the purgative medicine called senna. None of these have any relation to the above.
Stacte (Heb., Nataf)
The word stacte is the Greek for a drop, or exudation, and is equivalent to the Hebrew word natal, Stacte is an aromatic gum resin, supposed to have been derived from the Storax tree, Styrax officinale, which belongs to the natural family Styraceœ, consisting of a few trees and shrubs, natives within or near the tropics.
It is represented in the gardens of this country by the beautiful snowdrop tree, Halesia tetraptera, a native of Carolina. S. officinale abounds in Palestine; it is a small tree, or irregular, stiff-branched shrub, having oval leaves, whitish on the under side; its flowers are white, resembling orange flowers in appearance and scent. The gum is obtained by incisions made in the stems and branches, and is highly valued as a perfume.
Storax is mentioned in the Apocrypha, Eccles. 24:15—“I gave a sweet smell like cinnamon and aspalathus, and I yielded a pleasant odor like the best myrrh, as galbanum and onyx, and sweet storax, and as the fume of frankincense in the tabernacle.”
Both Dioscorides and Theophrastus speak of a mixture prepared from the odoriferous gums of the myrrh and storax trees, but what their myrrh and storax trees were is not now known.
According to Hanbury, the resin obtained from Styrax officinale in ancient times has entirely disappeared from modern commerce, the resin now known as liquid storax being the product of Liquidamber orientale, a tree, native of the southwest of Asia Minor.
Aspalathus “I gave a sweet smell like cinnamon and aspalathus.”—Eccl. 24:15.
This word only occurs in the above verse, and is apparently the Greek name of some sweet-scented plant; what that plant was we have now no means of ascertaining. Theophrastus mentions it with cinnamon and cassia, thus indicating its Indian origin; he says it is sweet-scented. Dioscorides says that aspalathus is used for thickening ointment. Pliny says it grows in Cyprus, that it is a white, thorny shrub, the size of a moderate tree; he also speaks of it as growing in Spain, and being employed there as an ingredient in perfumes and ointments. Gerard speaks of aspalathus, and calls it Lignum Rhodium. This is by modern botanists considered to be the wood of Convolvulus Scoparius and C. floridus, two small, erect, branching, shrubby species, with small silky leaves and white and pink flowers.
Their wood is sweet-scented, and yields an oil called oil of Rhodium. Both are natives of the Canary Islands. It is probable that some allied species, native of the south of Europe, and possessing the same qualities, may be accepted as the aspalathus of Pliny and Gerard; while the Indian aspalathus of Theophrastus is considered to be Myrica sapida, a shrub or small tree, native of Nepaul, and allied to the sweet gale, Myrica Gale, common in boggy land in this country, and known as “bog myrtle.”
Linnaeus has adopted Aspalathus as the name of a genus which includes a considerable number of species of small pretty shrubs, natives of South Africa, having small silky or heath-like leaves, and belonging to the family Leguminosœ. These, however, have nothing to do with the aspalathus of the ancients.
Spicery (Heb., Nechôth)
“Ishmaelites came from Gilead with their camels bearing spicery and balm and myrrh, going to carry it down to Egypt.”—Gen. 37:25; 172925And they sat down to eat bread: and they lifted up their eyes and looked, and, behold, a company of Ishmeelites came from Gilead with their camels bearing spicery and balm and myrrh, going to carry it down to Egypt. (Genesis 37:25) B.C. “Carry down the man a present, a little balm, and a little honey, spices, and myrrh, nuts, and almonds.”—Gen. 43:11; 170711And their father Israel said unto them, If it must be so now, do this; take of the best fruits in the land in your vessels, and carry down the man a present, a little balm, and a little honey, spices, and myrrh, nuts, and almonds: (Genesis 43:11) B.C.
When we consider that spicery is spoken of along with balm and myrrh, nuts and almonds, we may readily infer that it was not a general term, as understood by us, but probably the produce of some special plant. What that plant was, however, cannot now be determined. Some commentators consider it to be the Storax, Styrax officinale (see Stacte); others, one of the plants producing the gum tragacanth, Astragalus Tragacantha. This latter view is founded on the Hebrew word for spicery, being similar to the Arabic word for the gum tragacanth, which plant is a stiff, close-branched, spiny shrub, having small winged leaves. The gum exudes either spontaneously or from punctures made in the stems, upon which it dries in flakes or masses, and is afterward collected. Gum tragacanth, which is now known to be produced by several species of Astragalus, is used for many purposes in the arts, especially as a glue, and for stiffening woven fabrics. It is common in the desert, as well as on the high elevations of Lebanon, and in many other parts of Palestine. It belongs to the pea family, Leguminosœ.
In Song of Solomon 5:11I am come into my garden, my sister, my spouse: I have gathered my myrrh with my spice; I have eaten my honeycomb with my honey; I have drunk my wine with my milk: eat, O friends; drink, yea, drink abundantly, O beloved. (Song of Solomon 5:1), we read, “I have gathered ray myrrh with my spice.” And in verse 13, “His cheeks are as a bed of spices.” Again, in 6:2, “My beloved is gone down into his garden, to the beds of spices.”
The words beds of spices, lead us to suppose that Solomon had in his gardens at Etham all kinds of sweet-smelling plants common to Palestine, as also those natives of South Europe, such as lavender, rosemary, sage, thyme, savory, marjoram, and more.
Olive Tree (Heb., Zait)
“And the dove came in to him in the evening; and, lo, in her mouth was an olive leaf plucked off.”—Gen. 8:11; 234911And the dove came in to him in the evening; and, lo, in her mouth was an olive leaf plucked off: so Noah knew that the waters were abated from off the earth. (Genesis 8:11) B.C. “In like manner thou shalt deal with thy vineyard, and with thy oliveyard.”—Exod. 23:11; 149111But the seventh year thou shalt let it rest and lie still; that the poor of thy people may eat: and what they leave the beasts of the field shall eat. In like manner thou shalt deal with thy vineyard, and with thy oliveyard. (Exodus 23:11) B.C. “And thou shalt command the children of Israel, that they bring thee pure oil olive beaten for the light, to cause the lamp to burn always.”—Ex. 27:20; 149120And thou shalt command the children of Israel, that they bring thee pure oil olive beaten for the light, to cause the lamp to burn always. (Exodus 27:20) B.C.”A land of oil olive, and honey.”—Deut. 8:8; 14518A land of wheat, and barley, and vines, and fig trees, and pomegranates; a land of oil olive, and honey; (Deuteronomy 8:8) B.C.”And Solomon gave Hiram twenty thousand measures of wheat for food to his household, and twenty measures of pure oil.”—1 Kings 5:11; 101411And Solomon gave Hiram twenty thousand measures of wheat for food to his household, and twenty measures of pure oil: thus gave Solomon to Hiram year by year. (1 Kings 5:11) B.C.”And within the oracle he made two cherubims of olive tree (etz shamen), each ten cubits high. And five cubits was the one wing of the cherub, and five cubits the other wing of the cherub: from the uttermost part of the one wing unto the uttermost part of the other were ten cubits... And for the entering of the oracle he made doors of olive tree.”—1 Kings 6:23-24,31; 100523And within the oracle he made two cherubims of olive tree, each ten cubits high. 24And five cubits was the one wing of the cherub, and five cubits the other wing of the cherub: from the uttermost part of the one wing unto the uttermost part of the other were ten cubits. (1 Kings 6:23‑24)
31And for the entering of the oracle he made doors of olive tree: the lintel and side posts were a fifth part of the wall. (1 Kings 6:31) B.C. “And over the olive trees and the sycamore trees that were in the low plains was Baalhanan the Gederite: and over the cellars of oil was Joash.”—1 Chron. 27:28; 101528And over the olive trees and the sycomore trees that were in the low plains was Baal-hanan the Gederite: and over the cellars of oil was Joash: (1 Chronicles 27:28) B.C. “Go forth unto the mount, and fetch olive branches and pine branches.”—Neh. 8:15; 44515And that they should publish and proclaim in all their cities, and in Jerusalem, saying, Go forth unto the mount, and fetch olive branches, and pine branches, and myrtle branches, and palm branches, and branches of thick trees, to make booths, as it is written. (Nehemiah 8:15) B.C.
On considering that Noah knew the leaf brought to him by the dove to be the leaf of the olive tree, we are led to suppose that it must have been a tree of economical importance to man before the flood. It is not, however, again spoken of till the time of Moses, as above quoted. As olive oil is then for the first time mentioned, it may reasonably be supposed that it was in use in Palestine at an earlier date, and that it was the oil of the olive tree that Jacob poured upon the pillar. Its value as an article of commerce is shown by Solomon’s paying Hiram’s servants with oil, for timber to build the temple; and the numerous times olive oil and olive trees are mentioned in the Bible, prove it to have been of as much importance in early times as it continues to be at the present day.
The olive tree, Olea europœa, belongs to the family Oleaceœ, and is allied to the ash and privet. Although it has received the specific name of europœa, it is doubtful whether it is a native of Europe: most probably it was in early times introduced to Southern Europe from Western Asia.
It is a stiff, branching, evergreen tree, from ten to twenty or more feet in height, somewhat spiny, having smooth or slightly hoary stiff leaves, about the size and shape of privet leaves, producing in their axils tufts of numerous small white flowers, followed by an oblong berry-like fruit, consisting of a fleshy, oily rind, of a violet blue color when ripe, and enclosing a hard nut.
The olive abounds in Palestine, and in many places is the only tree to be seen. The Rev. H. B. Tristram says, “The most extensive olive yards are on the borders of the Phoenician plain. But they are scarcely less important in the country of Ephraim, and all the valleys from the Plain of Esdraelon to Benjamin, the patrimony of Manasseh and Ephraim, are clad with olives to this day. The vale of Shechem is one noble olive grove. The plain of Moreh is studded with them. They form the riches of Bethlehem, and cover the lower slopes of the valleys round Hebron. The plains of Gilead, and all the lower slopes, as well as the more fertile portions of Bashan, form a long series of olive groves, neglected indeed, but still ready to yield their fatness in return for the most trifling culture; and they are the wealth of the regions of Philistea and Sharon.”
The olive attains a great age; several trees on the Mount of Olives are supposed to have been there in the time of Christ. Like many other things the olive trees suffered greatly at the taking of Jerusalem by Titus Vespasian, and many were cut down. Dr. Bonar, speaking of the olives in the Garden of Gethsemane says “the olive is not killed by being cut down; it shoots up several stems in the place of one. There is hardly one of these olives that has a single trunk: three, four, or five stems come up out of each root.” The tree, however, does not reach the size to be called a large timber tree, its trunk being short, and often contorted. As the cherubim of Solomon’s temple were eighteen feet high, and the spread of each wing was nine feet, if olive wood were the material of which they were made, many pieces must necessarily have been joined together. If olive wood were not used, we can form no opinion as to what tree furnished the wood; but in consequence of the Hebrew word êtz shamen, in Kings 6:31, above quoted, being in Isaiah rendered oil tree, which is considered by some to be the oleaster, Elœagnus angustifolius, it is supposed that that was the tree of which the cherubim were made. The oleaster is, however, but a tree of small size (see Oil Tree).
Olive oil is obtained by expression from the pulp of the fruit, and is of great economical importance, not only in Palestine, but also in southern Europe. It is extensively used in the preparation of food, and may be called the milk of these countries. It is also used for burning in lamps, and in Joppa and other parts for soap making. The oil and also preserved olive fruits are imported to this country from ports on the Mediterranean.
The olive tree is not sufficiently hardy to flourish in the open air in this country, except in sheltered situations on the south coast, where it is occasionally to be seen in the form of a bush. When planted against a south wall it attains a considerable size.
Oil Tree (Heb., Êtz Shamen)
The Hebrew word translated oil tree in the above verse is in 1 Kings. 4:23. translated “olive tree,” and in Neh. 8:1515And that they should publish and proclaim in all their cities, and in Jerusalem, saying, Go forth unto the mount, and fetch olive branches, and pine branches, and myrtle branches, and palm branches, and branches of thick trees, to make booths, as it is written. (Nehemiah 8:15), “pine branches.” In the latter place both pine branches and olive are mentioned, thus showing that “pine branches” referred to some tree distinct from the “olive.” The oil tree mentioned in Isaiah is considered to be the oleaster, Elœagnus angustifolius, which belongs to a small family of plants termed Elœagnaceœ, and is a small, hard-wooded, stiff-branched tree, averaging 15 to 20 feet high, having hoary, willow-like leaves, and clusters of small yellow flowers, which perfume the air for a considerable distance. The fruit is a berry about the size of an olive, and of a greenish color: it is dried by the Arabs and made into a kind of bread. An oil also is obtained from it. This tree is common in the south of Europe and Western Asia, and is abundant in Palestine.
At the present day the berries are known as “Trebizond dates.”
On account of the Hebrew word for oil tree being also translated pine branches, some commentators have been led to believe that the oil tree was the pine, and that the oil was the tar and turpentine obtained from the branches of pine trees.
There, however, appears to be much uncertainty regarding the identification of the tree or trees mentioned in the above verses, and translated from the Hebrew êtz shamen. This seems to have arisen from the Arabic word zukkum having been given to the oleaster tree by some commentators. Dr. Hooker shows that zukkum is properly the Arabic name of Balanites œgyptiaca, also an oil tree (see Balm). He says it is a well-known abundant shrub or small tree in the Plain of Jordan. In Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible it is adopted as the oil tree of Isaiah. On the other hand, however, Canon Tristram, writing five years later, maintains that it was the oleaster above described, which he says is “abundant in every part of Palestine above the Jordan Valley, especially about Hebron, Tabor, and Samaria;” he also says “it cannot be the Balanites (zukkum, of the Arabs), because that tree does not exist except in the tropical region of the Jordan Valley.”
Camphire (Heb., Côpher; Greek, Kupros)
The word camphire is considered to be derived from the Latin caphura, which comes from the Arabic káfúr, in turn supposed to come from the Sanscrit karpura, signifying white, and is presumed to be the origin of the name of the well-known medicinal drug called camphor. This is the produce of Camphora officinarum, a large tree of the Laurel family, native of China, Formosa, and Japan. It is, however, very questionable whether Chinese camphor was known in Western Asia in the time of Solomon; be that as it may, it has nothing to do with the Hebrew côpher, the name of the plant bearing the cluster of camphire as our translation has it that grew in Solomon’s vineyards at Engedi.
The Greek word kupros, rendered cypress in marginal Bibles, is considered to be the camphire of the text. This is now ascertained to be the plant called Lawsonia alba, a shrub attaining a height of 10 to 12 feet, the young branches being four-sided, with opposite, elliptical, lanceolate leaves, like those of the privet, and bearing panicles of small sweet-scented white flowers. When old it becomes a spiny bush, hence the mistake of Linnæus in making two species of the same plant in different stages, and calling the one L. inermis and the other L. spinosa. It belongs to the family Lythraceœ, which is represented in this country by that beautiful plant Lythrum Salicaria, the purple loose-stripe of our river banks, and the pretty flowering greenhouse shrub Lagerströmia indica.
Lawsonia is widely dispersed, being common in India, many parts of Western Asia, Egypt, and North Africa.
Its flowers are odoriferous, and its leaves are made into a paste, which has from remote ages been valued as a cosmetic, as is evidenced by Egyptian mummies. This paste is used to impart a yellow color to the finger and toe nails, the tips of the fingers, the palms of the hands, and the soles of the feet; this is considered by the fair sex among the Orientals to enhance their beauty. It is also used by the men for coloring their beards and for dyeing the manes and tails of their horses. As this custom was practiced in Egypt during the sojourn of the Israelites in that country they must have become well acquainted with it, but no mention is made of it in the Levitical law. It is to be presumed that it was not esteemed or patronized by them, for in Deut. 21:1212Then thou shalt bring her home to thine house; and she shall shave her head, and pare her nails; (Deuteronomy 21:12), we read, “Then thou shalt bring her home, to thine house; and she shall shave her head and pare her nails.” This seems to imply that a captive woman belonging to a people who practiced the art of coloring their nails or hair might be taken for a wife after she had been deprived of her colored hair, and had had her nails pared and cleaned. In India the flowers are used by the Buddhists as offerings to their deities. In most countries where it is used it is known by the Persian name, “Henna.” It is cultivated in Egypt, and bunches of its flowers are sold in the streets of Cairo, their scent being like that of roses.
Bushes, Shrubs
“And, behold, the bush (Seneh) burned with fire.”—Ex. 3:2; 14912And the angel of the Lord appeared unto him in a flame of fire out of the midst of a bush: and he looked, and, behold, the bush burned with fire, and the bush was not consumed. (Exodus 3:2) B.C. “And she cast the child under one of the shrubs.”—Gen. 21:15; 189215And the water was spent in the bottle, and she cast the child under one of the shrubs. (Genesis 21:15) B.C. “Who cut up mallows by the bushes.”—Job 30:4; 15204Who cut up mallows by the bushes, and juniper roots for their meat. (Job 30:4) B.C. Among the bushes they brayed; under the nettles they were gathered together.”—Job 30:7; 15207Among the bushes they brayed; under the nettles they were gathered together. (Job 30:7) B.C. “And they shall come, and shall rest all of them in the desolate valleys, and in the holes of the rocks, and upon all thorns, and upon all bushes.”—Isa. 7:19; 74219And they shall come, and shall rest all of them in the desolate valleys, and in the holes of the rocks, and upon all thorns, and upon all bushes. (Isaiah 7:19) B.C.
The word bush is a general term for all woody plants that do not assume the characters of trees.
They vary in height from less than 1 foot to 10 or 12; many are cultivated as ornamental plants, and known as shrubs, their places of growth being termed shrubberies. In their wild state they generally form thickets, some kinds occupying vast tracts of desert country, which are spoken of as bush and scrub, in this country familiarly represented by heath, broom, furze, bramble, hazel, juniper, sloe, and the like. These may be taken as a specimen of the bush of Palestine, to which may be added Christ’s Thorn, Balanites, Caper-bush, Tamarisk, and others.
With regard to the bush of Moses, no special plant can be named (see Shittim wood). Those who account for everything taking place naturally, suppose it to be Dictamnus Fraxinella, a well-known, strong-growing, showy, herbaceous perennial of the Rue family, native of Southern Europe and Western Asia. It grows to the height of from 2 to 3 feet, and has broad, unequal, winged leaves; the flowers are showy, being red or white, and produced in terminal spikes. The whole plant is covered with resinous oily glands, the oil being so volatile that the air surrounding the plant becomes impregnated with it to that degree, that the near approach of a light is said to be followed by a flash of flame. The writer has tried this experiment, but has never succeeded in seeing the flash; this may probably be accounted for by the moistness of our atmosphere. Several trees in different countries when in flower, and seen from some distance, have the appearance of being on fire, such as the flame trees, Sterculia acerifolia and Nuytsia ligustrina, in New South Wales; Rhododendron arboreum, in the Himalayas; and Eugenia malaccensis, the Malay apple.
In the neighborhood of the Dead Sea, the pretty-flowering tree, Acacia Farnesiana, is thickly covered with a parasite, a species of Loranthus, a member of the Miseltoe family; this, when in bloom, imparts to the whole tree the appearance of being on fire. There is, however, no record of this scarlet-flowered Loranthus growing on the Acacia trees in the desert of Midian.
Thorns (Heb., Chedek, Kôtz, Kimmeshonim)
“Thorns also and thistles shall it bring forth to thee.”—Gen. 3:18; 400418Thorns also and thistles shall it bring forth to thee; and thou shalt eat the herb of the field; (Genesis 3:18) B.C. “Those which ye let remain of them shall be pricks in your eyes, and thorns in your sides.”—Numb. 33:55; 145255But if ye will not drive out the inhabitants of the land from before you; then it shall come to pass, that those which ye let remain of them shall be pricks in your eyes, and thorns in your sides, and shall vex you in the land wherein ye dwell. (Numbers 33:55) B.C. “Then I will tear your flesh with the thorns of the wilderness, and with briers.”—Judges 8:7; 12497And Gideon said, Therefore when the Lord hath delivered Zebah and Zalmunna into mine hand, then I will tear your flesh with the thorns of the wilderness and with briers. (Judges 8:7) B.C. “Canst thou put an hook into his nose? or bore his jaw through with a thorn?”—Job 41:2; 1520 B.C. “The way of the slothful man is as an hedge of thorns.”—Prov. 15:19; 100019The way of the slothful man is as an hedge of thorns: but the way of the righteous is made plain. (Proverbs 15:19) B.C. “As thorns cut up shall they be burned in the fire.”—Isa. 33:12; 71312And the people shall be as the burnings of lime: as thorns cut up shall they be burned in the fire. (Isaiah 33:12) B.C. “Behold, I will hedge up thy way with thorns.”—Hosea 2:6; 7856Therefore, behold, I will hedge up thy way with thorns, and make a wall, that she shall not find her paths. (Hosea 2:6) B.C. “And when they had plaited a crown of thorns, they put it upon his head.”—Matt. 27:29; 3329And when they had platted a crown of thorns, they put it upon his head, and a reed in his right hand: and they bowed the knee before him, and mocked him, saying, Hail, King of the Jews! (Matthew 27:29) A.D.
In our version the above three Hebrew words have been translated thorns, which word occurs thirty-two times in the Bible; a number of other Hebrew words have been translated prickly plants, and in many cases are spoken of as emblems of pain and trouble to man, but, like the thistle, they cannot be referred to any special plant. With few exceptions, thorns evidently is a name for spiny, hard-wooded shrubs, of which there are many kinds in Palestine, generally occupying desert tracts and rocky places.
In this country the word thorn is applied to the hard spines and prickles of such trees and shrubs as the bramble, rose, sloe, furze, and hawthorn (the latter being greatly used for forming hedges), all of which may be taken as examples of the thorns of Palestine.
Paliurus aculeatus, Zizyphus Spina-Christi, and Z. vulgaris, are strong hard-wooded shrubs, often climbing and holding on to other plants by strong hooked spines. Zizyphus Spina-Christi is called nebk by the Arabs, and sometimes assumes the character of a tree. Dr. Hooker mentions having seen one 40 feet high, with a spreading head. They are widely spread throughout the Mediterranean region and Palestine. Z. Spina-Christi forms impenetrable hedges; and it is generally supposed that the “crown of thorns” was made of the flexible branches of one of these. The fruit of Z. vulgaris is succulent, about the size of a plum, and is well known as jujubes. They belong to the Buckthorn family, Rhamnaceœ, and are represented in this country by Rhamnus catharticus, the buckthorn, a rude-growing, spiny shrub.
Balanites œgyptiaca, already spoken of under Balm, is also well adapted for forming fences, and is used for this purpose in many parts of Egypt, especially as a hedge for the gardens in the oasis of Lybia.
Lycium europœum, a rambling, prickly shrub, well known in this country as boxthorn, or tea tree, and often used for covering garden seats, arbors, and the like, is also used as a hedge plant in Palestine.
Other plants, such as Capparis spinosa, the caper bush, several spiny species of Astragalus, which produce gum tragacanth, Nitraria Schoberi, Ononis spinosa, well known in this country as the rest harrow, and several species of Acacia, are all hard, spiny plants, growing abundantly in the desert. All, or any one of them, may be considered to be the “thorns of the wilderness.”
Bramble (Heb., Atâb)
The Bramble, Rubus fruticosus, the well-known blackberry, is a decumbent shrub, producing long shoots with stiff, hooked spines, and rambling over hedges and bushes, or forming thickets in open spaces. It belongs to the family Rosaceœ.
It is common throughout Europe and Western Asia, in Palestine being represented by R. discolor, which by some botanists is supposed to be only a variety of R. fruticosus. Being spoken of with thorns and nettles affords sufficient evidence to lead us to believe that the plant of the above verses is the same that we call bramble.
The Hebrew word for bramble (atâb) is also rendered thorn in Isaiah.
Some commentators consider the Christ’s thorn, Zizyphus vulgaris, to be the bramble; others the box thorn, Lycium afrum, but there is no collateral evidence in proof of either of the three being the atâb of the Hebrews.
Brier (Heb., Shamîr)
The word brier occurs fifteen times in the Bible, and often in connection with thorns: the above quotations are sufficient to show that it is prickly plant; but there is no evidence to prove that it is restricted to any special one. In this country, bramble and wild roses are familiarly known as briars, some of which are also wild in Palestine, Rosa rubiginosa being the well-known eglantine or sweet briar. The expression in Ezekiel, “There shall be no more a pricking brier unto the house of Israel,” is figurative, in allusion to rebellious men.
The Rev. H. B. Tristram supposes that the prickly shrub, well known in this country by the name of “butcher’s broom,” may be a brier of the Bible; and others hold that nettles are included under brier.
Rose (Heb., Chadatzeleth)
“The desert shall rejoice, and blossom as the rose.”—Isa. 35:1; 713 B.C.
The Hebrew word in the above verse of Isaiah is the same as that translated rose of Sharon; but having been written 300 years later, it is very questionable whether Isaiah’s rose and the rose of the Apocrypha are referable to the same plant—the one considered to be the rose of Sharon. We think not, and it is quite probable that the different verses may refer to more than one plant. One or more may be true roses, which grow wild on Lebanon and in other parts of Palestine, in the same way as they do in this country, one being the common dog rose, Rosa canina: Dr. Hooker mentions having seen nine sorts cultivated. Other plants have also received the name of roses, such as the handsome species of Cistus, known as rock rose; Hibiscus syriacus, the Syrian rose; the beautiful rose bay, Nerium Oleander, and more, all of which may pass as the roses of the above verses.
Heath (Heb., Arar)
The plants familiarly known as heath belong principally to the extensive genus Erica, of which nearly four hundred species are described in books and known by specimens in Herbaria, many of them being favorite garden plants. With a few exceptions all the Ericas are natives of South Africa, about a dozen only being found wild in Europe, five of which are common to Great Britain; they grow gregariously on uncultivated tracts commonly known as moors and heaths. Calluna vulgaris, Erica vulgaris of Linnæus, is very abundant in Scotland, occupying hills and mountain slopes; it is well known by the name of “ling” and “heather.”
Erica vagans and E. orientalis are the only species recorded as natives of Syria, the first growing on the coast plains (but not abundant), the second on Lebanon, therefore the heath of the above verses must refer to some other plant or plants. As the Arabic word for Juniper is exactly the same as the Hebrew word translated heath, and Juniperus Sabina is common through-out the desert plains and rocky places of Syria, it may be accepted as the heath of the desert and wilderness alluded to in the above verses. The common juniper, J. communis, is also a native of Syria, and, with the tamarisk, may also be considered to represent the heath of the desert.
Ivy (Greek, Kissos)
“And when the feast of Bacchus was kept, the Jews were compelled to go in procession to Bacchus carrying ivy.”—2 Maccabees 6:7; 168 B.C.
The above verse from Bible times is in the Apocrypha. From it we learn that it was a plant dedicated to the god Bacchus, and that the Jews were compelled to carry it to his temple on feast days. There was nothing hurtful in carrying the plant, but it was abhorrent to them in consequence of their having to enter the temple of and pay homage to a heathen god. Ivy is now in common use for decorating our churches at Christmas, as is also the holly. The use of the latter originated with the early Romans, 673-640 B.C., who during the season of their festival called the Saturnalia (when all manner of games were performed) sent sprigs of holly with gifts to their friends, as an emblem of friendship. The use of holly was adopted by early Christians, and at Christmas sprigs of holly are placed in churches, the first time this was done in this country being in the reign of Henry VI. It may be considered remarkable that two plants used in heathen idolatry should have come into favor in this country for ornamenting our churches at Christmas. The ivy, Hedera Helix, belongs to the family Araliaceœ, and is common throughout Middle and Southern Europe and Temperate Western Asia. The holly is a native of Europe but is not found in Palestine, which circumstance lessens its consequence as a holy plant.
Linnaeus has changed the Greek name of the ivy Kissos to Cissus, which he adopted as the name of an extensive genus of climbing plants belonging to the same family as the vine.
Judas Tree (Cercis Siliquastrum, Linn.)
The tree well known in this country, as also in Germany, France, Spain, and other parts of Europe, by the name of Judas tree, although not a Biblical plant, the name of Judas being connected with it is sufficient to make it worthy of being noticed in this book. It is a native of Palestine, as shown by specimens in the Kew Herbarium collected near Nazareth, on Mount Tabor, and at Samaria. It is common in Greece and other parts of the south of Europe, and is spoken of by Theophrastus under the name of samuda. It extends eastward to Japan, and is represented in North America by C. canadensis.
The Judas tree belongs to the papilionaceous section of Leguminosœ. It has a stout trunk and thick, stiff, somewhat horizontal branches, its leaves are simple, more or less heart-shaped, smooth and deciduous. The flowers are numerous, of a pale red color, closely produced on the bark of the branches, old and young, and even from the trunk, and flowering before the leaves come out, impart to the tree a gay appearance. It is quite hardy in this country, and is recorded to have been introduced about three hundred years ago. It is noticed in Gerard’s “Herbal” (1597) by the name of Judas tree, but why it received that name is not evident unless it is supposed that its stiff branches were well suited for Judas’s purpose, but we do not read that he hanged himself on a tree. Matthew 27:55And he cast down the pieces of silver in the temple, and departed, and went and hanged himself. (Matthew 27:5), simply says he went and hanged himself, therefore the origin of the name of Judas in connection with this curious tree may be considered as a myth.