AS SEEN IN THE SCRIPTURE AND ON THE MONUMENTS,
CHAPTER 1
ISRAEL IN EGYPT.
THE fact of God's chosen people Israel having dwelt in Egypt long enough for all who went to sojourn there to have died, and for a new generation to have arisen to see God's wonders in their deliverance, stamps a peculiar importance upon that land. They were there long enough to have become mingled with the Egyptians; but God declared them to be "strangers" in that land; and though their cruel bondage was indeed hard to be borne, we doubt not it was used of God to prevent them making it their home, and mixing with the people. Though received kindly at first, a king arose which knew not Joseph, and all was changed. Their very increase was a source of uneasiness. If a war should arise, they might take part with their enemies. The Egyptians became taskmasters, and the Israelites slaves. This prevented their union, and made the Israelites the more willing to leave the land when God's set time was come.
The Selling of Joseph.
The first intimation of Egypt, in its connection with Israel, is when Joseph was sold by his brethren. He came from his father to inquire after their welfare. As they espied him afar off, they said to one another, “Behold, this dreamer cometh;" for Joseph had told his brethren his dreams: as each was binding his sheaf, all the other sheaves did obeisance to that of Joseph; and another dream declared that even the sun, and moon, and eleven stars bowed down before Joseph-a dream which all interpreted to signify that even his father and mother were to join with his brethren to do him homage. Though his father rebuked him for such seeming irreverence, yet he could not but "observe the saying." His sons were now about to take the first step which led to its fulfillment.
They hated the dreamer. They had seen how their father loved him before them all, and how he had made a coat of many colors for the son of his old age. But now they were far away from their father, and in a place where no man could overlook them, and they contemplated the murder of their brother. They would see what would become of his dreams.
Reuben, however, interposed, and deprecated such blood-guiltiness. He proposed hiding him in a pit for the moment, intending afterwards to deliver him to his father.
On Joseph's arrival, they stripped him of his coat, and cast him into a pit, in which there was no water; and they sat down to eat bread. But casting their eyes around they saw a company of Ishmaelites coming from Gilead "with their camels, bearing spicery and balm and myrrh, going to carry it down to Egypt.”
Judah at once proposed that they should sell Joseph to the Ishmaelites, rather than shed their brother's blood. To this the others assented.He was sold for twenty pieces of silver, and the merchants carried him to Egypt.
His brethren, having killed a kid, and dipped the coat of many colors in its blood, sent it to their father, asking if he knew if that was his son's coat or not. Jacob recognized it, and supposing his favorite son had been slain by a wild beast, he "rent his clothes, and put sackcloth upon his loins, and mourned for his son many days.”
Before proceeding with our history, let us examine the foregoing in detail.
The sons of Jacob had taken their flocks to Shechem, the scene of their former treachery and bloodshed. They had so crippled the entire people, that they feared them not, for sufficient time had not elapsed—perhaps two years—for their deeds to have been forgotten, because of the blood-revenge so dear to the tribes of the East.
But as large flocks had to be moved from place to place, they had taken them to Dothan. This has been recognized as Dotân, about ten miles north of Samaria. Near this place lies the regular route from the north-east of Palestine to the south, and hence to Egypt. Egypt, in its luxury, required the products of Arabia and Eastern Asia, and by this route they were brought. Wells were dug for the benefit of the caravans, and even temples were erected for those who were engaged in this traffic.
The sons of Jacob were near enough to the route to see the caravan passing on its way southward, and to its people they sold Joseph.
They espied a company of Ishmaelites, and this is the first time we read of them as a separate people. About a hundred and fifty years had elapsed since Ishmael was sent away from his father's house-ample time for a tribe to have been formed. They may have been the Midianite merchants, or a sort of guard for the merchants through the various districts they had to travel with their wares: but it will be observed that scripture says that Joseph was sold to the Ishmaelites, but it was the Midianites who sold him into Egypt, as if the two names referred to the same.
On this occasion they carried spices. Egypt used spices, not only for its own luxury, but some was also used for incense to their gods, and immense quantities were employed in the embalming of the dead. The mummies were so highly perfumed, that for years they sent forth a fragrance, being often for a time preserved in the houses of their relatives.
Of the three descriptions named, the first is "spicery." This may be some particular aromatic powder, but it has been identified by the name used in the original. The word signifies contusion,' or breaking.
2. BALM, or balsam. This was the gum of the balsam tree of Gilead, and was valued for its medicinal and healing properties, and which are referred to in that lament of the prophets: "Is there no balm in Gilead? Is there no physician there? Why then is not the health of the daughter of my people recovered?" (Jer. 8:2222Is there no balm in Gilead; is there no physician there? why then is not the health of the daughter of my people recovered? (Jeremiah 8:22))—a passage often and aptly applied to Christ and the healing virtues of His blood. Why are not the daughters of men cured of the disease of sin with such a remedy for all?
It is not known now with precision from what shrub came the balsam carried to Egypt.
The references to it in scripture prove it to have been produced in Palestine, and that it was used for medicinal purposes. Josephus says that it was introduced into Palestine, by the queen of Sheba making a present of it to king Solomon. The price of the balsam in the time of Alexander was double its weight in silver. Judah and Israel exported it to Tyre. (Ezek. 27:1717Judah, and the land of Israel, they were thy merchants: they traded in thy market wheat of Minnith, and Pannag, and honey, and oil, and balm. (Ezekiel 27:17).)
3. MYRRH. This is not the myrrh generally spoken of in scripture. The word occurs only here and in chapter 43:11, which, however, sufficiently marks it as coming from Palestine or Arabia. It is believed to be what is known as ladanum, a resinous exudation from the oak-rose. It is said to have been discovered by being found sticking to the beards of goats after they had fed off the plants, and was combed out; but it was afterwards gathered from the plant itself, by being beaten out, and then scraped of the thongs of the whips. It is still used as a perfume in Egypt.
The next thing is as to Egypt's dealing in slaves. The testimony of the monuments is abundant on this point. In nearly every scene where labor is being carried on, there stands the taskmaster with a stick—not, of course, the memorable "stick" of the Mahometans, but one evidently intended for punishment.
The testimony of travelers in more modern times to slavery is universal. They all went to see the slave markets, and they saw the slaves being brought up the Nile from the interior, where they had been either bought or captured.
The monuments show that in early times there were both black and white slaves. Those taken in war were mostly used by the monarch in building temples, cutting canals, and other public works, while private persons had their slaves to work for them, serve at table, &c., as we know the Hebrews also had. It is probable, from the monuments, that slaves formed a portion of the tribute paid to Egypt by conquered districts.
, The price Joseph was sold for was doubtless twenty shekels of silver which, at 2S. 3½ d. the shekel, was but £2 5s. 10d. The value of a slave was afterwards settled under the law at thirty shekels. (Ex. 21:3232If the ox shall push a manservant or a maidservant; he shall give unto their master thirty shekels of silver, and the ox shall be stoned. (Exodus 21:32).) Travelers give the prices of slaves as varying from £5 to £150. The more beautiful of the women were purchased by the rich and added to their harems.
Joseph in Egypt.
Joseph, on being carried into Egypt, was sold to Potiphar, an officer of Pharaoh, and captain of the guard. The marginal readings give "eunuch, chamberlain, or courtier;" and "chief marshal. Heb. chief of the slaughtermen or executioners." From this it may be gathered, that the particular nature of the functions of this officer is not known. Perhaps "officer" is the best word to use; and if he was chief of the executioners, his business would be to see that the sentences given were duly executed.
Joseph was soon found to be a useful servant, and his master made him steward. The secret of it was that "the Lord was with Joseph and he was a prosperous man." It was so considered even by his master, and he made him "overseer over his house, and all that he had he put into his hand." Potiphar had such confidence in Joseph, though only a slave, that he left things entirely to his supervision, so that he did not know even what he possessed.
The monuments show that the Egyptians were careful in taking statistics. In all the groups of cattle, storing of corn, &c., there is always an overseer with tablet in hand taking down the numbers and quantities. And in other representations these accounts are being given to superior officers or overseers. The account given above does not imply that no statistics were taken, but that Potiphar did not trouble himself about them, but left all to Joseph. As in other countries the wealth of the individual often consisted in cattle and the produce of the fields; and as different departments were left to different individuals, a strict account had to be kept of all by someone appointed for the purpose. Some of the state scribes or secretaries were evidently persons of note. As Potiphar was engaged in court business, he entrusted all this to Joseph; and then, as now, the favor of the Lord made him a faithful and prosperous servant.
But Joseph was a goodly person and well-favored; and this attracted the attention of Potiphar's wife, who tried to lead Joseph astray. But he was enabled, by the grace of God, to refuse all her temptations, demanding of her, "How can I do this great wickedness and sin against God?”
This state of things shows us clearly that in Egypt in those days the system of keeping women in the harem, as is now the custom in many parts of Egypt and the East, did not exist.
This too is fully confirmed by the monuments. Women appear everywhere unveiled, and they sit with men at social parties entirely at variance with the harem system. Women servants also attend upon them at these parties, and instead of being veiled, are sometimes very slightly clothed.
To this day the harem system is not universal in Upper Egypt. In villages the women walk about with little or no veil. Nevertheless, their seclusion is always respected. A curtain hung up at the opening of a room, in lieu of a door, is never entered by a man. And one traveler relates that a man once saw a woman stealing things from his garden, and ran to protect his property, but she hastily drew her shawl over her head as a veil, and he did not dare to touch her. He had to let her walk away with her plunder, with no other punishment than he could give with his tongue.
In the great cities the seclusion of women is now carried to the extreme. Except by their husband and near relatives they are never allowed to be seen by men. In going abroad, a lady is enveloped in a large cloak which covers hands and feet, and with other wraps nothing is to be seen but her eyes. The higher classes never walk when abroad, but ride on mules or donkeys to their destination, always with attendants. Some are never allowed to go to the bazaars, but when things are needed a stock is sent to the house for them to select from.
An English lady, who had adopted this costume, relates that in returning once from a ride she accidentally fell off her donkey. Her attendant at once helped her up; but to recover herself she placed her hands against a wall, forgetting that her hands even must not be seen. Her attendant at once covered up her hands lest the donkey-boys should see them! Many of the female slaves live for years without crossing the threshold of the house. The entrance is guarded by eunuchs.
This seclusion of women must have arisen after the Israelites left Egypt. The intercourse of Eliezer with Rebekah and her family in the city of Nahor, skews no such restriction, as well as the case of Joseph and Potiphar’s wife.
This shameless woman effected the ruin of Joseph. He was accused by her to her husband of the very crime she had committed, and Joseph was cast into prison, "a place where the king's prisoners were bound." It appears strange that Joseph did not eventually receive a more severe punishment. It may be that the Lord moved the heart of his master, and it is thought probable that Potiphar did not entirely credit his wife's statement.
When in the prison we know that the Lord again favored Joseph, and gave him grace in the eyes of the governor; so that he was made a sort of overseer, and the governor was able to leave all things in the hand of this favored one of Jehovah. How consoling is the word of God that the hearts of all men are in the hand of the Lord! He influences them as it pleases Him. "When a man's ways please the Lord, he maketh even his enemies to be at peace with him." (Prov. 16:77When a man's ways please the Lord, he maketh even his enemies to be at peace with him. (Proverbs 16:7).)
In course of time the king's chief butler and his chief baker offended his majesty, and in his wrath he cast them into prison—the prison of which Joseph had the oversight, though he himself was a prisoner. These were also placed under Joseph's charge, and he waited on them, and there they continued for a time.
Now it happened in the course of one night that the chief butler and the chief baker had each a dream. On Joseph coming to them the following morning he noticed that they were cast down, and inquired the cause of their sadness. They told him that they had each had a dream, but they could not discover the meaning of them. Joseph's thoughts at once resorted to God: he asked, "Do not interpretations belong to God?" He desired to hear the dreams.
The chief butler's dream was "Behold, a vine was before me; and in the vine were three branches; and it was as though it budded, and her blossoms shot forth; and the clusters thereof brought forth ripe grapes: and Pharaoh's cup was in my hand; and I took the grapes and pressed them into Pharaoh's cup, and I gave the cup into Pharaoh's hand.”
Joseph was able to interpret the dream. The three branches were three days; and the whole foretold that at the end of that time the butler would be restored to favor and again present the cup to Pharaoh.
Joseph had not the least doubt that the interpretation was of God; for he added, "Think on me when it shall be well with thee, and show kindness, I pray thee, unto me; and make mention of me unto Pharaoh, and bring me out of this house. For indeed I was stolen away out of the land of the Hebrews: and here also have I done nothing that they should put me into the dungeon.”
The chief baker, hearing such a favorable interpretation of the dream of the butler, the more readily told his dream also. "Behold," said he, "I had three white baskets on my head: and in the uppermost basket there was of all manner of bakemeats for Pharaoh; and the birds did eat them out of the basket upon my head.”
The interpretation was that the three baskets were three days. In three days should the chief baker be hanged on a tree, and the birds should feed upon his flesh.
The predictions came true! In three days Pharaoh celebrated his birthday, and made a feast unto all his servants. The head butler was restored; and the head baker was hanged on a tree.
But, alas! the head butler entirely forgot Joseph. Such is the ingratitude of man! But God was overruling all, and Joseph must remain yet in prison until God's time was come. Had Joseph been remembered before, he might have been delivered, and returned to Palestine, and, speaking after the manner of men, God's ends frustrated. No; he must remain in prison yet a long time; doubtless learning important lessons in retirement which could be learnt nowhere else; as Moses did in the desert, and Paul a prisoner at Rome.
In looking at the details, the first is the prison in which Joseph was confined. As far as the monuments give testimony, the Egyptians had not prisons separately erected; but there may have been an apartment attached to the house of the captain of the guard. Punishment, where the life was not taken, was for the most part by beating. The person was beaten and let go. Thus, when the Israelites did not make the required number of bricks they were beaten. This prison is said to be for the king's prisoners; and in it two of his servants were confined until Pharaoh decided what he would do with them.
As far as the narrative goes there was no trial either for Joseph or for the head butler and head baker. The will of the king was law. Whom he would he kept alive, and whom he would he put to death. And as for Joseph, he was but a slave, the property of his master. However, for offences generally between man and man, there were judges and a code of laws, according to the monuments.
Modern travelers relate how, a short time ago, those in authority were punished without trial, and it may be so still. In one village a chief man received a visit from one in authority from a distance. He prepared food for him, and they ate and drank together, and talked of matters concerning the country. Then pipes were introduced, and they still sat enjoying themselves; till the visitor said, Now to business: you are accused of so-and-so; and you are sentenced to receive so many strokes of the stick. The host was at once thrown down and the punishment administered. This over, the visitor politely took his leave. The chief man was not perhaps much surprised; for he knew full well that he had dealt in the same way with those below him; and all Mahometans look upon the stick as a blessing from heaven!
Though punishment may not have been simply by imprisonment, yet there were places in which persons could be confined. Joseph put his brethren in ward for three days; and apparently Simeon was in confinement till his brethren returned. (See Gen. 42:19; 43:2319If ye be true men, let one of your brethren be bound in the house of your prison: go ye, carry corn for the famine of your houses: (Genesis 42:19)
23And he said, Peace be to you, fear not: your God, and the God of your father, hath given you treasure in your sacks: I had your money. And he brought Simeon out unto them. (Genesis 43:23).) Joseph, as we know, was confined more than two years: his services being turned to such good account may have prolonged his imprisonment.
THE CHIEF BUTLER.—Part of his services was evidently to wait on the king with wine. "Thou shalt deliver Pharaoh's cup into his hand, after the former manner when thou wast his butler."
One of the charges brought against the Pentateuch is that it falsely represents the Egyptians having wine.
Without for a moment conceding that scripture needs any confirmation, it is interesting to see how the monuments bear witness to the details of scripture.
There we see persons gathering the grapes; and there we see others pressing the juice out of them, both by a twisted cloth and by persons treading the grapes in a winepress. Our picture also portrays wine being offered to the serpent as a god. At their feats an attendant carried round the 'wine-cup.' Some evidently partook too freely of the wine, for one is being carried home, and another (a lady) is sick!
The dream of the head butler implies that they not merely drank wine, but that they made it, and grew the grapes. The monuments, as we have seen, fully confirm it all.
THE CHIEF BAKER.—He had three baskets on his head. The monuments also represent such things on the head, and basket upon basket. It is thought that this account does not refer to white baskets, but to baskets of white bread. It also mentions that in the uppermost basket there was "all manner of bakemeats," or `work of a baker or cook,' as it reads in the margin: which implies that there was a variety of food prepared by the baker.
All this is fully confirmed by the monuments. There is depicted the dough being kneaded, sometimes by the hands and sometimes by the feet. Workmen are busy forming the fermented dough into cakes of various shapes, some of the cakes being sprinkled with seeds. Others are busy heating the ovens, and one is carrying a quantity of cakes on his head. It is clear from the monuments that great pains were taken to ensure a variety of "bakemeats;" and of course the king would not be behind his subjects.
From the tomb of Rameses III., at Thebes, we give a representation of the bakers at work.
This same king, in recounting the provisions he had made for the gods, names "good bread; besides loaves, buns, biscuits, cakes, pyramidal loaves, 24,800 articles of ornamental pastry. Total of good bread, 2,844,357 articles.”
The birth-days of the kings were kept with great festivities; all work was suspended for the day. Pharaoh took the opportunity of such a day to restore the head butler, and to hang the head baker, as Joseph had foretold.
Pharaoh's Dreams.
At the end of two full years—not simply "two years," for that might mean parts of two years, as the Jews also reckoned the time—Pharaoh had two dreams in one night. The dreams troubled him, and in the morning he sent for the magicians and wise men to interpret his dreams; but none were able to tell their meaning.
This is the first time we read of "magicians" in scripture. They were scribes,' men of the priestly class, who consulted the oracles, understood the sacred language of hieroglyphics and the mysteries of the dead. The monuments clearly point out such a class.
The dreams were these: "Behold there came out of the river seven well-favored kine, and fat-fleshed; and they fed in a meadow. And, behold, seven other kine came up after them out of the river, ill-favored and lean-fleshed, and stood by the other kine upon the brink of the river. And the ill-favored and lean-fleshed kine did eat up the seven well-favored and fat kine.”
The second dream was: "Behold, seven ears of corn came up upon one stalk, rank [fat] and good. And, behold, seven thin ears, and blasted with the east wind, sprang up after them. And the seven thin ears devoured the seven rank and full ears.”
The first dream is eminently Egyptian in its character. The cow was sacred to their goddess ATHOR. The kine came up out of the river. What river is not named; there was no necessity, for there was, and is, but one river—the Nile. The cows and oxen, in the scorching sun, go into the river to cool themselves, and there remain until the sun sinks in the horizon; though the dream may imply more than this, as the river Nile was represented by another of their gods, and was the source of all the fruitfulness of their land.
Egyptian wheat is clearly marked out by the seven ears on one stalk, and which was much cultivated in Egypt, and renowned among the ancients. The first ears were luxuriant and good, and the second were blighted by an east wind from the Red Sea and Arabian desert.
The head butler, on hearing that Pharaoh had had a dream, which no one of the wise men could interpret, recollected his own dream in the prison, and that of the chief baker, and a young man had interpreted them correctly. He at once narrated the circumstance to Pharaoh, confessing that he remembered his faults that day. He said it was "a young man, an Hebrew, servant to the captain of the guard," who had correctly interpreted their dreams.
Pharaoh sent and called Joseph, and they brought him hastily—"made him run," in the margin—out of the prison. And he shaved himself, and changed his clothes, and came to Pharaoh.
These words, "he shaved himself," though apparently a trivial incident, stamp an Egyptian trait upon the scene. Except as a sign of mourning, the Egyptians were exceedingly particular to shave off their beard. The monuments invariably exhibit them without beard, moustache, or whiskers (except the conventional beard of gods, &c.); the beard at once distinguished a foreigner from an Egyptian. This is mostly seen in the captives, for the domestic slaves had to conform to the rule of shaving. Indeed the Egyptians went further, and almost universally shaved their heads, and wore a close-fitting cap.
As this was very different from the Israelites, who shaved off the beard for mourning (see Isa. 15:22He is gone up to Bajith, and to Dibon, the high places, to weep: Moab shall howl over Nebo, and over Medeba: on all their heads shall be baldness, and every beard cut off. (Isaiah 15:2); Jer. 16:6; 41:56Both the great and the small shall die in this land: they shall not be buried, neither shall men lament for them, nor cut themselves, nor make themselves bald for them: (Jeremiah 16:6)
5That there came certain from Shechem, from Shiloh, and from Samaria, even fourscore men, having their beards shaven, and their clothes rent, and having cut themselves, with offerings and incense in their hand, to bring them to the house of the Lord. (Jeremiah 41:5); Amos 8:1010And I will turn your feasts into mourning, and all your songs into lamentation; and I will bring up sackcloth upon all loins, and baldness upon every head; and I will make it as the mourning of an only son, and the end thereof as a bitter day. (Amos 8:10)), we surely have here strong confirmation of the truth of the Pentateuch, for those who need such confirmation. Perhaps to no other monarch on earth would it have been needful for a man to have shaved himself. Here it was necessary, and here it was done. The thing being in itself of little moment, makes it all the more worthy of note.
Pharaoh tells Joseph his dreams, saying, "I have heard say of thee that thou canst understand a dream to interpret it." Joseph at once disowns any inherent wisdom: "It is not in me: God shall give Pharaoh an answer of peace.”
The interpretation seems quite natural now that it is before us. The seven fat kine and seven good ears of corn point out seven years of great plenty, to be succeeded by seven years of famine, pointed out by the lean kine and the bad ears. Pharaoh had added a few more details: the lean cattle were such as he had never seen in all Egypt for badness; and when the seven lean kine had devoured the seven fat kine, they were still as lean as ever. The famine would entirely eat up the seven years of plenty.
Joseph advised that an intelligent and wise man should be sought out, who should store up the spare produce of the seven plentiful years, against the famine that would succeed them. Joseph thus evinced that he had not the slightest doubt of the correctness of his interpretation; indeed, as he had at the first spoken of God as being the interpreter, so now he said, " What God is about to do, he she weth unto Pharaoh The thing is established by God, and God will shortly bring it to pass.”
God was thus with His servant Joseph, and He gave him favor in the eyes of Pharaoh. The thing was good in the eyes of the king, and in the eyes of all his servants. And Pharaoh said to his servants, "Can we find such a one as this is, a man in whom the Spirit of God is?”
And to Joseph he said, "Forasmuch as God path shewed thee all this, there is none so discreet and wise as thou art." And at once Joseph was set over all Egypt—next to Pharaoh himself. Thus Pharaoh owned the God of Joseph. All the representatives of the gods of Egypt had failed to interpret his dreams: but here was one to whom the only and true God had shown the interpretation; such a one must have the Spirit of that God, and he should be ruler over all Egypt.
“And Pharaoh took off his ring from his hand, and put it upon Joseph's hand, and arrayed him in ventures of fine linen, and put a gold chain about his neck: and he made him to ride in the second chariot which he had: and they cried before him, Bow the knee.”
The ring given to Joseph was probably a signet, as a mark of his authority. Many of the ancient rings had engravings on them. One is described as having four devices on a revolving plinth. "On one face was the name of King Horns, of the eighteenth dynasty; on the other a lion, with the legend, Lord of strength,' referring to the monarch; on one side a scorpion, and on the other a crocodile." Several of the ancient Egyptian rings can be seen in the British and other museums.
The king's seal would, of course, stamp everything that Joseph did as equal authority with that of the king. It is probable that the seals in those early days were not used with wax, but with some sort of ink, instead of the name being signed. Another way of using the seal was to take impressions in clay, as is alluded to in Job 38:14: "It is turned as clay to the seal." There have been found in the ruins of Nineveh what are judged to be two clay seals, affirming a treaty between the king of Egypt and the king of Assyria.
Joseph was also arrayed in vestures of fine linen. This reads in the margin, "silk," but it is very questionable whether silk is intended. Egypt was famous for its linen, and Herodotus says that the clothing of the Egyptian priests was linen; and as the chief men of Egypt were mostly connected, in some way, with the priesthood, Joseph, as one able to interpret dreams, might be looked upon as one of that class, and be dressed accordingly. The fact of his marrying the daughter of a priest also confirms this. He may, however, have had nothing whatever to do with the worship or service of their gods.
The dress usually worn by the ancient Egyptians was of that simple kind suited to such a hot climate. A cloth, or apron, fastened round their Bodies by a band, or strap, was enough; or, where their occupation required it, a roll of cloth was passed between their legs, and then fastened to the band at their loins. Men may be seen at the present time by the river-side with no other clothing.
The women wore but one garment, which reached down to their ankles. It was sometimes wide at the bottom, and at other times so tight that only a short step could be taken; but the king, queen, and persons in office wore official dresses.
Joseph had also a gold chain put about his neck. There is evidence, from the monuments, that persons of rank wore chains, or necklaces; indeed, the necklaces themselves have been found in the tombs, and are now to be seen in the museums. This chain would, no doubt, be not a mere ornament, but a badge of office. One of the monuments exhibits an officer of high degree having the official chain placed round his neck. Thus was Joseph duly installed into office. His term of servitude in God's school of solitude had ended, and he was now, in God's due time, exalted to great honor. Pharaoh said to him, "I am Pharaoh, and without thee shall no man lift up his hand or foot in all the land of Egypt." But Joseph said in after years, " God did send me before you to preserve life. He hath made me a father to Pharaoh, and lord of all his house, and a ruler throughout all the land of Egypt." For Joseph, it was God who exalted him, and not Pharaoh. As to the land itself, Joseph, after his exaltation, on the birth of Ephraim, speaks of Egypt as "the land of my affliction." (Gen. 41:5252And the name of the second called he Ephraim: For God hath caused me to be fruitful in the land of my affliction. (Genesis 41:52).) He was still a stranger there, as God had stated he should be.
Joseph Ruler over Egypt.
“And Pharaoh called Joseph's name Zaphnathpaaneah; and he gave him to wife Asenath, the daughter of Poti-pherah, priest of On.”
Joseph being a Hebrew—a foreigner—must, now he is in high office, have an Egyptian name.
It was usual for the kings to adopt throne names on their ascension to the throne, and in like manner
Joseph must have an official name. It is Zaphnathpaaneah in the Hebrew; but in the LXX it is Psonthamphanech. And as the name was originally Egyptian, an attempt has been made to turn it back into that language. As will be seen, it says in the margin of our Bibles, "which in the Coptic signifies a revealer of secrets,' or the man to whom secrets are revealed.'" Jerome translated it "savior of the world." Turning it into Egyptian it is supposed to stand P-SOTE-M-PHENEH, and is thus explained: P the article: SOTE, salvation; M the sign of the genitive; PH the article; ENEH the world, or age: "the savior or preserver of the age;" or, as explained by Rosellini and others, P-SONT-EM-PH-ANH, that is, "sustainer of life." This last is very nearly what Joseph said of himself, as being sent to preserve life.
Joseph's wife's name was Asenath, or Aseneth, as in the LXX. This is taken as a purely heathen name, ASNEIT, "she belongs to Neit;" or ASSHE-NEIT, "a worshipper of Neit:" Nit, or Neit, or Neith is the name of a goddess.
Asenath was the daughter of Poti-pherah, or Potephre as in the LXX. In Egyptian PETE-PERE, "belonging to the sun;" a common name or title which appears often on the monuments.
Poti-pherah was priest of On. The LXX translates it by Heliopolis. This ancient city was situated about ten miles N.N.E. of Cairo. Heliopolis signifies "city of the sun," and On is interpreted to mean "light," or "sun." It is the same as the Aven of Ezek. 30:1717The young men of Aven and of Pi-beseth shall fall by the sword: and these cities shall go into captivity. (Ezekiel 30:17); and is supposed to be alluded to in Jer. 43:13: "He shall break also the images of Beth-shemesh, that is in the land of Egypt." It will be seen that in the margin it reads, "or house of the sun." From all this we may gather that RE, the sun, was an object of worship at this city. Herodotus names among the various religious festivals one held at Heliopolis to the sun.
There would have been magnificent temples erected to the honor of such a deity, with a numerous priesthood. This city was the great seat of learning in Egypt. Abdallatif saw in the twelfth century many colossal sphinxes, partly standing and partly prostrate. He also saw the porches of the temples covered with inscriptions. He described two immense obelisks, whose summits were covered with massive brass, around which were others one-half or one-third the size of the others, placed in so thick a mass that they could scarcely be counted. Most of them were thrown down. From this ancient city monuments were taken to adorn Rome, and others to adorn Constantinople, Alexandria, &c.
All now is one mass of ruins, the buildings only to be traced by low mounds, except that one obelisk still stands amid the surrounding desolation. This monument is described as a block of red granite from sixty to seventy feet in height.
This is considered to be one of the oldest of the Egyptian monuments. It bears the name of OSIRTASEN I. (or Orisi Gesen, or Sesonchosis, or Geson Goses) who was the founder of the twelfth dynasty. The inscription, which is the same on the four faces, refers to its erection. The crude brick walls around are supposed to have enclosed a large space in front of the celebrated temple of the sun; and the remains of other massive walls mark the city to have been one of nearly three miles in extent.
In an early inscription we read of an official who held a similar position to that of Joseph: "I was made crown bearer of his majesty.... chief of the coffer of the majesty of PEPI, [or Meri Pepi, the Phiops of Manetho, the fourth king of the sixth dynasty]; his majesty gave me the rank of companion, scribe, priest of the place of his pyramid... I was alone there as a second of his majesty.”
Joseph was thirty years old when he was exalted. He entered at once into his office. He traversed the land, and during the seven years of plenty he laid up corn in abundance, until the quantity became so great that he left off numbering: it was "as the sand of the sea" for quantity.
Before the famine Joseph had two sons. These he named Manasseh, that is "forgetting," and Ephraim, that is "fruitful." These are Hebrew names, and not Egyptian, showing that Joseph did not consider himself an Egyptian. In both cases he referred to God (Gen. 41:51, 5251And Joseph called the name of the firstborn Manasseh: For God, said he, hath made me forget all my toil, and all my father's house. 52And the name of the second called he Ephraim: For God hath caused me to be fruitful in the land of my affliction. (Genesis 41:51‑52)): "God hath made me forget all my toil, and all my father's house;" and "God hath caused me to be fruitful in the land of my affliction.”
The seven years of plenty were succeeded by the famine foretold by Joseph. And the famine was not only in Egypt, but in "all lands." Now the storehouses were opened, and Joseph commenced to sell the corn which he had stored. The people at first appealed to Pharaoh, but he at once referred them to Joseph.
The monuments give pictures of the storing of grain. In roofed houses the grain was shot through a hole in the roof; there being a door at the bottom by which it could be taken as wanted. First, the corn was sold for money, until the money was exhausted. Then, the people changed their cattle for corn. Thus the horses, the flocks, the cattle, and the asses became Pharaoh's. Then the land followed, and all the land became Pharaoh's, except the land belonging to the priests: this remained their own, and they were fed by order of Pharaoh out of the gathered store.
When the famine terminated, Joseph gave out seed to the people, covenanting with them that they should bring into the king's treasury one fifth part of the produce, and four-fifths should be their own.
All this exactly agrees with the ancient historians and the monuments, except that Herodotus mentions also that the warriors had each twelve arum of land (each arura being a square of one hundred Egyptian cubits.) But this may have been after the time of Moses, and the land may have belonged to the warriors only during their time of service, and at its termination again reverted to the king. In the earliest monuments soldiers are not found. The Exodus was some two hundred and ten years after this.
During the famine Joseph's brethren came to buy corn. He recognized them, and spoke harshly to them, declaring them to be spies. One of Joseph's dreams was now in course of fulfillment: his brethren bowed down to him, and Joseph remembered his dreams as he saw them do so. They did not recognize Joseph, and declared that they were twelve sons of one man: one was with their father, and one was not—which of course referred to Joseph.
Egypt in the north-east was open to attacks from the Arabs and Canaanite tribes, so that Joseph might think he could with good reason thus charge his brethren with being spies.
He put them in ward for three days, and then bound Simeon before their face, and released the rest to carry corn to their families, with strict injunctions that they were not to see his face again, unless they brought their youngest brother with them.
Joseph took oath twice "by the life of Pharaoh." It may have been the more readily to avoid any suspicion in their minds that he was not an Egyptian. Some take it as a strong asseveration rather than an oath.
Joseph heard them talking to one another, and now, conscience stricken, declaring that they were surely guilty in selling their brother into Egypt: they felt his blood was now being required at their hands. Little did they think that that very brother heard and understood what they were saying, for Joseph spoke to them by means of an interpreter. But his heart melted within him, and he turned himself away and wept.
They start on their return; but one, on opening his sack to feed his ass, discovered that his money had been placed in the sack's mouth. This further filled them with fear; but they referred to God, exclaiming, "What is this that God hath done unto us?" Every man's money was found in the mouth of his sack.
Jacob at first declared that his youngest son Benjamin should not go with them; but the peremptory manner of Joseph made his brethren declare that they would not go without him, and at length Jacob consented. This brought the whole eleven brothers of Joseph to be present, bowing before him as his dream had predicted: "They bowed themselves to him to the earth:" "they bowed themselves and made obeisance.”
Jacob sent a present for "the man," "a little balm, and a little honey, spices, and myrrh, nuts and almonds." The balm, myrrh, and spices, are the same as are named in chapter 37:25, already considered.
With the above present and double money the sons of Jacob again visit Egypt. As soon as Joseph saw them he said to his steward, "Slay and make ready; for these men shall dine with me at noon.”
At the meal they set on for Joseph by himself, and for his brethren by themselves, and for the Egyptians by themselves: "because the Egyptians might not eat bread with the Hebrews; for that is an abomination unto the Egyptians.”
The Egyptians would not eat with foreigners lest they should be polluted. Herodotus says that an Egyptian would not kiss a Greek, nor use a knife or spit belonging to a Greek, nor eat any meat that had been cut with a Greek knife.
In dining, the guests are represented as sitting on the floor round a low table on which the dishes are placed, and each one helps himself with his fingers. The very same custom prevails to this day.
A lady residing some time in Egypt thus describes her mode of dining, " First a small carpet is spread on the mat; then a stool cased with mother-of-pearl, &c., is placed upon it, and serves as the support of a round tray of tinned copper, on which is arranged our dinner, with a cake of bread for each person. A maid then brings a copper cover and basin and pours water on the hands of each party, and we arrange ourselves round the tray, our Eastern table-napkins spread on our knees.
These are larger and longer than English hand-towels, that they may cover both knees when sitting in the Turkish manner. During the meal the maid holds a water-bottle, or defends us from flies with a fly-whisk. Having no change of plates, knives or forks, [they ate with their fingers], no time is lost at dinner, and it usually occupies twenty minutes. Thus much valuable time is saved by avoiding works of supererogation. One or two sweet dishes are placed on the tray with those which are savory, and it is singular to see the women of this country take morsels of sweet and savory food almost alternatively. Immediately after dinner the ewer and basin are brought round, the stool and carpet are removed with the tray, and the stool is always placed in another room until again required." A lady to do her guest honor will, during dinner, pick up morsels with her fingers and put into the guest's mouth. Another lady when sick was fed thus by her servant with tit-bits of chicken, &c., and got quite used to it. She said she knew the fingers were scrupulously clean.
Joseph's brethren were again dismissed with sacks of corn; but by Joseph's directions his silver cup was placed in Benjamin's sack. And when they had proceeded but a short distance, Joseph's steward is made to follow after them, and pretend that someone had stolen the cup of Joseph, wherein "he divineth." The cup was found in Benjamin's sack, and all returned to Joseph. He asked them if they thought he was one who could not "certainly divine." Judah confessed—not to the theft, but—that God had found out their iniquity: they would be Joseph's servants. Joseph said No, he would have only Benjamin; and then Judah related how the life of his aged father was bound up in the life of the lad, that it was only by great entreaty he had allowed Benjamin to come, and he was sure it would be the death of the old man if Benjamin were kept in Egypt. He begged that he himself might be kept a prisoner in place of the lad.
The pathetic appeal of Judah was too much for Joseph: he could contain himself no longer. "Cause every man to go out from me," he cried; and Joseph made himself known to his brethren. He wept aloud, and said, "I am Joseph: doth my father yet live?" But his brethren were troubled at his presence and could not answer him. He begged them to come near him, and again said, "I am Joseph, your brother, whom ye sold into Egypt." He told them not to be angry with themselves; for it was God who had sent him before them to preserve life. There were to be yet five years of famine; he bid them hasten back and fetch their father and wives and children, lest they came to poverty.
They were to tell Jacob all they had seen, and that God had made Joseph lord of all Egypt. Thus did Joseph piously refer all to God: it was He, and not they, who had sent him into Egypt; and it was He, and not Pharaoh, who had made him ruler over Egypt.
A few points demand attention before we proceed. The cup supposed to have been stolen was silver. We should perhaps rather call it a "bowl." The monuments represent the servants offering wine in a sort of shallow basin. They also speak of silver, representing it as white gold.'
The steward spoke of Joseph "divining" in his cup. How this was done, or professed to be done, is not known. But the custom was found in the interior of Egypt at a late date. Norden relates, that when travelling in Nubia, where, when delivered from a perilous condition they sent to threaten a malicious and powerful Arab, he answered them, “I know what sort of people you are. I have consulted my cup, and found in it that you are from a people of whom one of our prophets has said, There will come Franks under every kind of pretence to spy out the land," &c.
In the British Museum there is a shallow bowl full of engraving in the interior. Though brought from Assyria it has the Egyptian sphinx with the crown of Upper and Lower Egypt, the winged sun, and the sacred beetle. This was probably used as a `divining cup.'
It will be noticed that though Joseph speaks of divining, he does not say "by the cup." It is hoped he would not condescend to such superstitions.
Pharaoh heard that Joseph's brethren had come, and it pleased him and his servants. And he bid Joseph send for his father and their households, and they should have a good place in Egypt, and eat of the fat of the land.
Jacob could scarcely believe the good news that Joseph his son was yet alive; but when he saw the wagons that Joseph had sent, his spirit revived, and he said, "It is enough: Joseph my son is yet alive: I will go and see him before I die.”
The wagon as found on the monuments is a very simple sort of cart on two wheels, drawn by an ox. When Jacob and his descendants reached Egypt, his sons were directed to say that they were shepherds, and had been such from their youth, for "every shepherd is an abomination unto the Egyptians." No reason is given here why a shepherd was accounted an abomination. The monuments evince the contempt shown for shepherds and goatherds by the mean appearance given to them. "To this day sheep-feeding is esteemed the office of women and slaves." It is supposed that the dislike to shepherds arose from a race of shepherd-kings having previously held sway over Egypt, or at least a part of the country; a subject we shall have to consider more fully when looking at the chronology of Egypt.
Goshen was the part of the country assigned to Jacob and his descendants. This is almost universally believed to have been the north-east part of Lower Egypt. It is called in Psa. 78:12, 43,12Marvellous things did he in the sight of their fathers, in the land of Egypt, in the field of Zoan. (Psalm 78:12)
43How he had wrought his signs in Egypt, and his wonders in the field of Zoan: (Psalm 78:43) "the field of Zoan" or Tanis. In Gen. 47:11,11And Joseph placed his father and his brethren, and gave them a possession in the land of Egypt, in the best of the land, in the land of Rameses, as Pharaoh had commanded. (Genesis 47:11) there would appear to be a district called Rameses, in which the Israelites, under their oppression, built the cities of Raamses and Pithom. (Ex. 1:1111Therefore they did set over them taskmasters to afflict them with their burdens. And they built for Pharaoh treasure cities, Pithom and Raamses. (Exodus 1:11).)
The Israelites in this district would be near to Memphis, Tanis and On, one of which was probably the abode of Joseph, if not the metropolis of Egypt at that early time. Joseph said, “Thou shalt dwell in the land of Goshen, and thou shalt be near unto me." (Gen. 45:1010And thou shalt dwell in the land of Goshen, and thou shalt be near unto me, thou, and thy children, and thy children's children, and thy flocks, and thy herds, and all that thou hast: (Genesis 45:10).)
On the death of Jacob, "Joseph commanded his servants the physicians to embalm his father." "And forty days were fulfilled for him; for so are fulfilled the days of those which are embalmed; and the Egyptians mourned for him threescore and ten days.”
Herodotus tells us that physicians abounded in Egypt; and what made them more numerous was that each one studied but one particular disease, so that there were as many physicians as there were diseases, or perhaps classes of diseases. A book on Materia Medica has been discovered. Its date is assigned to the fourteenth century before our era, but it quotes from earlier documents, dating from the pyramids. It describes various forms of diseases and contains about a hundred and seventy distinct prescriptions. Medical men had certain stated remedies which they were bound to use for three days before they tried others, or they would be held responsible for the death of the patient. It has also been discovered from the mummies that the physicians used in those early days to stop decayed teeth with gold.
Joseph being next in authority to the king would have physicians attached to his establishment. But according to the historians the embalming was done by a special class of persons, and not by physicians. The fact of Jacob not being an Egyptian may have made a difference, and for some reason Joseph ordered the physicians to undertake the work, or perhaps superintend it only.
The time occupied is named by Diodorus as thirty days, and for a king they mourned seventy-two days, which, it will be seen, very nearly agrees with the account in scripture. Herodotus says, "Having done this they embalm in natrum, covering it up for seventy days;" which period may refer to the whole time occupied.
As to why the Egyptians embalmed the bodies, it has been discovered that they believed that so long as the body existed, the soul had certain privileges in its transmigrations, which were lost on the destruction of the body. To this end they not only embalmed the body, but went to enormous expense in erecting monuments as tombs, and sealed up the bodies in the interior in so secure a manner as to prevent them being discovered and disturbed. In the pyramids various expedients were resorted to, to hide the entrance to the interior, and in other tombs the passages were securely closed so as to convey the impression to a visitor that he had come to the end of the passage. It was only by cutting away these obstructions, or cutting a passage at the side of them that the interior could be reached.
When a body was embalmed it was often placed in a light wooden case, sometimes in two or three cases—made of cedar or sycamore, on which was carved or painted (or on a layer of stucco was painted) a representation of the person embalmed—not perhaps with any attempt at a portrait, but with resemblance enough to be identified when there were more than one—and they were placed in the houses where the deceased had lived, the case being stood up on the feet. They were thus represented as still present, though dead; and here they would be kept for months—perhaps years—as a series of family portraits are now kept by some persons.
They were afterwards buried—some in massive stone coffers, covered with engravings and hieroglyphics, and in magnificent tombs; or if poor they were consigned to the mummy-pits, rooms underground, reached by long narrow passages.
The following is the description given by Herodotus as to the different modes of embalming:— The most perfect mode is, " They take first a crooked piece of iron, and with it draw out the brain through the nostrils, thus getting rid of a portion, while the skull is cleared of the rest by rinsing with drugs; next they make a cut along the flank with a sharp Ethiopian stone, and take out the whole contents of the abdomen, which they then cleanse, washing it thoroughly with palm wine, and again frequently with an infusion of pounded aromatics. After this they fill the cavity with the purest bruised myrrh, with cassia, and every other sort of spicing except frankincense, and sew up the opening. Then the body is placed in natrum for seventy days, and covered entirely over. After the expiration of that space of time, which must not be exceeded, the body is washed, and wrapped round, from head to foot, with bandages of fine linen cloth, smeared over with gum, which is used generally by the Egyptians in the place of glue, and in this state it is given back to the relations, who enclose it in a wooden case which they have had made for the purpose, shaped into the figure of a man. Then fastening the case, they place it in a sepulcher-chamber, upright against the wall.
“If persons wish to avoid expense, and choose the second process, the following is the method pursued: Syringes are filled with oil made from the cedar-tree, which is then, without any incision or disemboweling, injected into the abdomen. The passage by which it might be likely to return is stopped, and the body laid in natrum the prescribed number of days. At the end of the time the cedar oil is allowed to escape, and such is its power that it brings with it the whole stomach and intestines in a liquid state. The natrum in the meantime has dissolved the flesh, and so nothing is left but the skin and the bones. It is returned in this condition to the relatives without any further trouble being disposed upon it.”
“The third method of embalming, which is practiced in the case of the poorer classes, is to clear out the intestines with a clyster, and let the body lie in natrum the seventy days, after which it is at once given to those who come to fetch it away.”
Diodorus says, "The most expensive mode cost a talent of silver (about ₤244); the second twenty-two minor (₤81); and the third was very cheap.”
The "inwards" were replaced in the body, or separately embalmed and put into bags outside the body, or placed in vases and left in the tomb with the body.
The examination of the mummies brought to Europe fully confirms the account given by Herodotus as to the first and second methods; the absence of specimens of the third mode is attributed to the fact that those brought out of Egypt have been only the best in appearance on the outside, and which bore evidences of having been embalmed in a careful manner.
In some cases it was found that the brain had been extracted through the nostrils, in other cases it had not. There is also to be traced the cut in the side, through which the viscera had been extracted. In some cases it was found to be covered with a metal plate, on which was engraved a symbolical eye.
It is supposed that the bodies had been subject to considerable heat, as the resinous substances and the spices had in some cases penetrated the bones. As to the substances actually used for the Egyptian embalming we have no certain knowledge.
When the embalming was completed, the body was wrapped round with many folds of linen, old and new. Wilkinson says that the microscope decides that only linen was used. The wrapping up was done by narrow strips, seven or eight inches wide; the coarser materials being placed on the inside, and the finer on the exterior. As much as seven hundred yards of material has been unrolled from a single mummy. Over the strips of linen a net-work of beads and bugles is sometimes found.
Various amulets and personal ornaments are found upon mummies and in their wrappings. The former were thought to be of use to the soul in its wanderings, and were placed with the body from the belief in the relation between the soul and body after death.
Mr. Pettigrew found, in unrolling an Egyptian mummy from Thebes, four wax deities, named Amset, Hapee, Kebsnof, and Smauf. "The Egyptians, it is well known, were the first to assign to particular divinities certain portions of the body over which they were destined to preside. They divided the human body into thirty-six divisions, each of which was under the government of decans, or aerial demons, presiding over the triple division of the twelve signs, and these were often specially invoked for the cure of diseases. Upon this the late celebrated Mons. Champollion constructed a sort of theological anatomy derived from the Great Funereal Ritual. The deities of the Amenti, Mr. Pettigrew had shown, were specially appropriated to the contents of the body: thus Amset was found by him.... within the bandages which contained the stomach and large intestines; Hapee, with the small intestines; Kebsnof, with the liver and gall-bladder; whilst Smof, or Smauf, was found with the head and lungs.”
We give an illustration of a mummy, with part of the case removed. It exhibits the four deities of Amenti, or Hades, and below, a god engaged in embalming. The smaller figure represents a head with all the wrappings removed.
M. Villoteau gives the following description of the mummy of a woman which had been unrolled:— “All the natural parts of the body, though dried, retained their natural form. The hair, eyes, nose, and mouth were so well preserved that one could easily recognize the expression of countenance which they must have produced. The hair was quite black, without any mixture of white hair, though the person appeared to have been old at the time of death. All that we could observe was that it was a little red near the roots. The hair was well fixed, long, and divided into plaits, fastened up on the head rather carelessly; which makes me think that at that time the women let their hair fall down their back in numerous tresses. The eyelids, lashes, and eye-brows were still in their natural state. The eyes only appeared to be slightly injured, because they were dried, and the pupil had shrunk in a little. The nose was pretty nearly in its natural state, very regularly formed, and very beautiful. The tongue was dry, and like a piece of parchment. The lips were thin, and the mouth small. The teeth appeared to be worn out through old age, and to Nave lost their sharpness, but they were all there, and seemed not to have been decayed. The body had been opened on the left side.”
They carried the embalmed body of Jacob into Canaan according to his desire. Thither went all the servants of Pharaoh and elders of his house, and all the elders of the land of Egypt: and also Joseph and his brethren and their households, except the children: there went up both chariots and horsemen, a very great company. They came to Atad, and "they mourned with a great and very sore lamentation," so as to attract the attention of the inhabitants of the land, and they named the place Abel-mizraim, "The mourning of the Egyptians." The mourning lasted seven days. Joseph and his brethren carried Jacob into Canaan.
The mourning in Egypt was very demonstrative. When any one died the female portion of the family, who were the chief mourners, left the body in the house, and went forth into the city with their bosoms bare, making loud cries of grief and casting dust upon their heads. The relatives joined them, and increased the lamentations.
At the funerals hired mourners also were employed, who pretended great grief and filled the air with their mournful cries. Those who have witnessed these processions in modern times are perfectly disgusted with the unseemliness of the whole scene.
M. Lepsius thus describes a burial that he witnessed in Ethiopia:—
“An hour before sunset above a hundred women and children had assembled before the house, and many more kept continually coming and cowering down beside them. Two daughters of the deceased were there, who had already strewn their highly ornamented heads, powdered with fat in the Arab manner, with ashes, and rubbed the whole upper part of the body white with them.... a great wooden bowl of ashes was placed there, and continually replenished. Close to the door, on both sides, couched female musicians, who partly clapped their hands in time, with yelling, ear-piercing screams, fastly beat the noisy hand-drum, and partly struck hollow calabashes, swimming in tubs of water, with sticks.... with convulsively strained windings, and turnings of the upper part of the body, they pushed their feet on, quite slowly and measuredly, threw their bosoms up with a sudden motion, and turned the head back over the shoulders, which they racked in every direction, and thus moved themselves forward with almost closed eyes. In this way they went down a little hill for fifteen or sixteen paces, when they threw themselves on the ground, buried themselves in dust and ashes, and then returned to begin the same dance anew.... whoever cannot get up to the ash-tub take ashes from the head of a neighbor to strew it on their own head.
The most prominent and disgusting feature of this scene is, however, that unrestrained passion has nothing to do with it, and that everything is done slowly, pathetically, and with evidently practiced motions; children down to the ages of four or five years are put into the procession, and if they make the difficult and unnatural movements well, the mothers, cowering behind, call out Taib, Taib to them: Bravo, well done.”
Anciently there were long processions for the funerals of great people, as shown on the monuments. Servants, bearing food and wine, with three young geese and a calf for a sacrifice; then various articles belonging to the deceased; a chariot, if he had one; the images of gods with more offerings, and liquids for libations. Mourners beating their breasts, and throwing dust upon their heads, some uttering loud cries, and others telling forth the praises of the deceased.
The body was placed in "the consecrated boat upon a sledge, drawn by four oxen and seven men;" the chief mourner was in the boat, and mourning relatives followed in the rear.
The funeral of Jacob was no doubt conducted by Joseph and his brethren, without any of the idolatrous rites of the Egyptians; and this they could the better avoid by the burial being away from Egypt, and by their leaving the Egyptians at Atad.
On Joseph's death he was also embalmed and placed in a "coffin." He had faith in God that He would surely visit the children of Israel and bring them out of Egypt, and he took an oath of his brethren that when this came to pass they would carry his bones away from Egypt. This may account for his body being put into a coffin of wood—for the word used distinguishes it from a stone or earthenware coffin— all of which have been found. The coffin found in the third Pyramid of Memphis, belonging to king Mycerinus was of cedar wood. Its remains are in the British Museum.
We do not read of Joseph being buried; he was to be kept ready for the Exodus. Now this did not take place until nearly one hundred and fifty years after his death; but the embalming preserved his body, and he could be easily carried away when God's set time was come.
The Israelites under Oppression.
The children of Israel had increased in a marvelous manner, and "the land was filled with them.” Upon a careful comparison of the scriptures bearing upon the chronology of the Old Testament, we believe that the period of the duration of the children of Israel in Egypt was, as in the common chronology, two hundred and fifteen years; and that in this period there was time for the seventy persons, from whom the nation sprang, added to the wives who were not reckoned—to have increased into about two million souls at the Exodus. Seeing that God's description is that they "increased abundantly," we are warranted in expecting an increase above that which takes place under ordinary circumstances.
“Now there arose a new king over Egypt, which knew not Joseph.”
It seems at first sight a strange thing that anyone who had benefited Egypt in a way that Joseph had done, and who had held such a high position, should have been unknown to any king ascending the throne. But it is clear from the historians and the monuments, that those who ruled over Egypt were of many different dynasties, and also that some kings ruled only over a part of the country now called Egypt. It becomes therefore a question as to whether the king who raised Joseph to his place had sway over the whole land. It speaks of "all Egypt," and similar expressions; but it is not known definitely what the boundaries were of that which was called Egypt, as there were other terms employed for parts of Egypt, such as Ethiopia, Pathros, Seba, &c.; yet it is plain that some of the kings did have at least nominal sway over all Egypt, and Joseph's Pharaoh may have been one of these.
The natural inference would be that the king who knew not Joseph was the first of a new dynasty, and perhaps one from another part of Egypt. On the other hand we must remember that in the space of a hundred and fifty years, favors are often forgotten, especially when bestowed by one who was after all but a servant of the state.
It becomes a question whether this new king was one of the shepherd-kings, or a successor to such, a question we hope to look at when considering the chronology of Egypt.
The new king, whoever he was, felt concerned about the Israelites. He saw their increase, and that they were more and mightier than the Egyptians—referring perhaps to those more immediately in contact with the Israelites, and not to all Egypt; and in case of war they might take part with the enemy against the Egyptians, and escape from being the servants of Egypt. This will show the value of the labor of the Israelites. Some of the kings prided themselves that their great works were not the works of Egyptians, but of slaves.
The king attempted at first to wear out the people of Israel with hard labor. The taskmasters appointed over them increased their burdens and made them serve with rigor. Nevertheless God blessed the Israelites, so that the more they were afflicted, the more they increased. The king then tried to prevent the increase by destroying all the male children at their birth; but here he was frustrated also. He then ordered that all the male children were to be thrown into the river; but how far this cruel order was carried out is not known.
The labor is specified as being "in mortar and in brick, and in all manner of service in the field." And after Moses had spoken to Pharaoh to ask him to let them go, Pharaoh made them serve with still greater rigor. Hitherto they had had straw given them with which to make the bricks, and a certain number of bricks had to be produced; but now no straw was to be given them. They must gather straw as they best could, or stubble in lieu thereof, and yet they must produce as many bricks as before. On failure, the Israelite overseers were beaten. They appealed to Pharaoh, but could get no relief from their cruel bondage.
In a papyrus called Anastasi iii., there is the record of twelve workmen who had been employed in the field at brick making, having failed to make their appointed quantity, were set at harder tasks upon a building.
The monuments fully bear out the fact that bricks were made in Egypt about the time of the Exodus; some have been found with the names of kings stamped upon them. Thus in the British Museum there are bricks bearing the names of Thothmes I, Thothmes III, Thothmes IV., Amenophis II and III, and Rameses II.
The monuments show the process of making the bricks: one is drawing water from a tank, another is mixing the clay; others are carrying the clay in baskets; some are forming the bricks; and others are carrying the bricks and putting them in piles. The enlarged heads in the engraving show by their beards that the workmen are foreigners.
The bricks were made in moulds and sun-burnt. Some had straw intermixed, but others had little or none, and others had broken pieces of pottery mixed with the clay. The bricks were of various sizes, some being as long as one foot eight inches, and weighing more than forty-eight pounds; but those made later were smaller. At first the marks appear to have been made with the fingers, but from the eighteenth Dynasty stamps were used.
Our illustration shows the bricks being placed in piles to be sun-dried, in contrast to the pottery which is being placed in kilns for burning; but in Jer. 43:9,9Take great stones in thine hand, and hide them in the clay in the brickkiln, which is at the entry of Pharaoh's house in Tahpanhes, in the sight of the men of Judah; (Jeremiah 43:9) we read of a "brick-kiln" in Egypt. Now though the bricks were usually sun-dried, it is believed that some were burnt in kilns and used for foundations exposed to water.
The most ancient buildings are of stone; and later they are partly of stone and partly of brick. But Pharaoh made them erect not only isolated buildings, but also build for him treasure-cities, Pithom and Raamses. These were probably cities mainly devoted to the storing of grain, Sm.; as we read that Hezekiah made storehouses for the increase of corn, and wine, and oil. (2 Chron. 32:2828Storehouses also for the increase of corn, and wine, and oil; and stalls for all manner of beasts, and cotes for flocks. (2 Chronicles 32:28).)
A papyrus describes the visit of an official to what appears to be this very city of Raamses. It reads, “I proceeded to Pa-Ramessu Meiamen (house of Ramessu Meiamen"). He found it flourishing in good things without a rival; fish in the pools, fowl on the ponds grass in the fields. "Its threshing-floors are full of barley and wheat." Wine and salt are also named.
Where these cities were situated is not now known. Raamses may have been a city in the district of Rameses, or Goshen, where the Israelites dwelt. If Pithom is the same as Patumus, Herodotus says it was built upon the canal which commenced above Bubastis.
During the carrying out of the cruel enactment of the king to put all the male children to death, Moses was born, and because he was a goodly child his mother hid him three months; but when she could hide him no longer, she took "an ark of bulrushes, and daubed it with slime and with pitch, and put the child therein; and she laid it in the flags by the river's brink." His sister stood afar off, to see what would happen to him.
The daughter of Pharaoh comes down to the river to wash or bathe, and there finds the child. Her heart is touched for the weeping babe, and on the approach of his sister, the girl is told to call one of the Hebrew women; and his own mother is called. Pharaoh's daughter bid the mother nurse the child for her. Thus God overruled all for the preservation of His servant Moses. That a princess should come to the river to bathe is not at all according to modern Egyptian custom; only women of the lower order bathe in the river, and only in quite out of the way places; but, as we have seen, the women in Egypt were anciently much less secluded than at present.
The bulrush used was the papyrus, or paper reed, a rush well known in ancient Egypt, but rarely to be met with now. "It had a triangular stalk about the thickness of a finger, which grew to the height of ten feet. From this the lighter Nile boats were made, whilst the peeling of the plant was used for sails, mattresses, mats, sandals, and other articles, but chiefly for the preparation of paper." That the ark was made of papyrus is worthy of note, because this plant grew in Egypt and nowhere else. It was cemented with slime or bitumen, and pitched to keep out the water.
When the child Moses grew up, he was brought to Pharaoh's daughter, and became her son. "And she called his name Moses; and she said, Because I drew him out of the water.”
It naturally becomes an interesting question as to whether Pharaoh's daughter gave Moses an Egyptian or a Hebrew name. In the Hebrew it is MOSHAH, and is the same word that is used for "drew out," except the points; so that it looks at first sight as if the name was Hebrew, and not Egyptian.
It is however contended that it is really an Egyptian name. The Septuagint and Josephus write Μωυςῆς, and the latter says that Thurmuthis—for he gives Pharaoh's daughter this name—"imposed this name Mouses upon him from what had happened when he was put into the river; for the Egyptians call water by the name of Ito, and such as are saved out of it by the name of USES; so by putting these words together, they imposed this name upon him." This explanation is confirmed by the Coptic, which was derived from the old Egyptian, and is the best language by which to explain the hieroglyphics.
From the New Testament we learn that Moses refused to be called the son of Pharaoh's daughter, and in Exodus we learn that when he was grown up he went to view his brethren, and looked on their burdens. "And he spied an Egyptian smiting an Hebrew, one of his brethren." And after looking about to see that no one was looking—a proof that God had not sent him to do this, or that he had not faith in what he did—he killed the Egyptian and hid him in the sand. On going out the second day he tried to adjudge between two Hebrews who were contending with each other. But the one who was in the wrong repudiated his interference, and asked if he meant to kill him as he did the Egyptian. Moses was now afraid and he fled from the face of Pharaoh, who indeed was seeking his life.
He directed his feet to Midian, and sat down by a well, and when the daughters of Reuel came to water their flocks., he helped them against the shepherds. They called him an Egyptian, which he would be in appearance. Here he married Zipporah, Reuel's daughter.
She bore him a son, and he called his name Gershom. This is a Hebrew name and signifies "banishment." Though called an Egyptian, he was not one; he had refused the honors of the court, and chosen affliction with the people of God. He was an Israelite, and his son must have a Hebrew name.
Here in the desert he must stay for forty years, and learn that if Israel is to be delivered, it must not be by his zeal and an arm of flesh, but by the I AM THAT I AM, who appeared to him in the burning bush, and who could consume from him this confidence in the flesh, and yet spare him alive.
Moses, who before was too forward, was now too backward; and when God revealed to him His intentions of delivering Israel by his hand, he made all sorts of excuses, until the anger of the Lord was kindled against him. Such is man in himself! and yet God in His grace takes up Moses and uses him to carry out His purposes, and afterwards holds him up to us as a witness of faith—one who esteemed "the reproach of Christ greater riches than the treasures in Egypt," and as one who "endured as seeing him who is invisible." May such be said of reader and writer!