Bible Handbook:
We can easily understand that on the carrying away of the Jews from Canaan, they would seek for some place where they could meet together, especially on the Sabbath day. The word synagogue may be said to be a Greek word untranslated. It is συναγωγή from σύν together, and ἄγω to bring. It was the place where the Jews met together.
On the return from the Captivity, such places were multiplied, being built wherever the Jews had a settled abode. The Jewish writers say that wherever ten Jews were located a synagogue was to be built. We learn from the New Testament that synagogues existed not only in Israel, for Paul, in his missionary journeys, found in many places buildings thus designated.
Where the Jews were located only for a time, temporary buildings were at times erected. Where no synagogue was built, a quiet, secluded spot was chosen, where the Jews could assemble. Paul found such a place at Philippi: he “went out of the city by a river side, where prayer was wont to be made” (Acts 16:13).
The explorers of Israel believe that they have found in several places, ruins of the Jews’ synagogues. By digging out the ruins the plans of the buildings were discovered, and all are declared to be uniform, and different from the plans of any church, temple, or mosque in Israel. “Two of the buildings had inscriptions in Hebrew over their main entrances: one in connection with a seven-branched candlestick, the other with figures of the paschal lamb.” (See Jerusalem”.)
Some of them at least could not have been mere plain buildings, for the ruins of columns have been found, and the pedestals of the columns are in their original positions, shewing that there were rows of columns in the interior. At Tel Hum, which is supposed to be identified with Capernaum, the ruins show the synagogue to have been 74 feet 9 inches long, by 56 feet 9 inches wide. Each synagogue had three entrances, and those found in Galilee had them on the south — it may be that they might look toward Jerusalem (see Dan. 6:10).
It is not so clear what was done in the synagogues on a Sabbath day in the time of our Lord. We learn from the speech of James at the council named in Acts 15 that in every city Moses had those that preached him, “being read in the synagogues every Sabbath day.” This may mean that Moses was announced by the reading of the law; or, if there was any one there to explain the law, it may have been expounded as well as read. In the above it says this was “of old time”; but this may not date farther back than the return from captivity.
From Acts 13:15 we learn that the prophets as well as the law were read. It is recorded that, at the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, the law only was read, and when he forbad that, the prophets were read instead; but during the successes of the Maccabees the law was again read as well as the prophets, as we find was done at Antioch.
We learn also that there, after the reading of the Scriptures, the rulers of the synagogue sent to Paul and those with him, saying, “Ye men and brethren, if ye have any word of exhortation for the people, say on.” Apparently Paul was in no conspicuous place (see Matt. 23:6), for the rulers sent to him, and when he began to speak he “beckoned” or made a sign to the people. The rulers may have had some tidings of Paul that led them to invite him to speak to the people.
In Luke 4:16, we find our Lord resorting to the synagogue on the Sabbath day, “as His custom was”; and there He stood up to read. The prophet Isaiah was given to Him. He read a portion, rolled up the book, gave it to the attendant, and sat down. All eyes were fixed on Him, and He expounded unto them the scripture He had read. This was at Nazareth, “where He had been brought up,” where He was known. We do not read that He was invited by the ruler to speak; but perhaps handing Him the roll of Isaiah implied this.
In Matthew 4:23 we learn that “Jesus went about all Galilee, teaching in their synagogues,” and in John 18, when before the high priest, the Lord said, “I ever taught in the synagogue, and in the temple, whither the Jews always resort” (verse 20).
From the above there appears to have been freedom for Him to address the people after the reading of the law and the prophets in the synagogues; in the temple the teaching may have been in a more private manner by His speaking to a group of hearers.
We find from Matthew 6:2 That there were collections or alms-giving in the synagogues, as we know from other scriptures that there was “a treasury” in the temple, where money was given.
We also learn from Matthew 6:5 that prayers were offered in the synagogues; but its being done by anyone to draw attention to himself as a devout person is condemned. Whether there was public prayer, or whether each one carried on his own devotions, is not clear.
From the Gospel of John we learn that being at liberty to attend the synagogue was a sign of communion among the Jews. In chapter 9:22 we read that “the Jews” had agreed that if any man did confess that Jesus was the Christ he should be put out of the synagogue. (See also ch. 16:2.) This operated with some of the rulers who believed on Him; they did not confess Him, lest they should be put out of the synagogue (ch. 12:42). The man who had been born blind, and who confessed Christ, was accordingly “cast out,” or excommunicated. Happily he was met by the Lord, who further revealed Himself to him as the Son of God, which called forth, “Lord, I believe. And he worshipped Him.”
Scripture also teaches us that persons were tried in the synagogues — doubtless by the Sanhedrim, or persons in authority, and punishments were inflicted therein. Our Lord said, “In the synagogues ye shall be beaten” (Mark 13:9). Paul himself confessed to having beaten in every synagogue those that believed on the Lord (Acts 22:19). Yea, punished them oft in every synagogue (ch. 26:11).
Coupled with the above, we find that Saul, when persecuting the church, proceeded on his way to Damascus, armed with letters to the synagogue, so that these places became the centers of opposition to Christ and for carrying on the persecution of His people. They thus became solemn and striking emblems of some who said they were Jews but were not, but were “the synagogue of Satan” (Rev. 2:9; 3:9).
It is not clear who exercised authority in the synagogues. In some places we read of “the ruler,” and in others, “the chief ruler” (though the Greek word is the same: Luke 13:14; Acts 18:8,17), and in other places it is “rulers” (Mark 5:22; Acts 13:15); so that there may have been more than one in some places. In each synagogue there were no doubt “elders” associated with the ruler (Luke 7:3) in their judicial matters, and in excommunications.
We read of another officer in Luke 4:20, called “the minister,” or “attendant,” who handed the rolls to those who read. Such had the care of the manuscripts.
Of the buildings themselves we know nothing, except what can be gathered from the ruins, as stated above. Of more modern synagogues, it has been stated that the worshippers as they entered had their faces towards Jerusalem, which is the reverse of what has been supposed to have been discovered in Galilee. At the further end of the building was the ark or chest, in which was kept the law and other sacred books; near this was the place of honour (Matt. 23:6). In front of the ark was a lamp with branches, which was lit only on special occasions. A small lamp was kept continually alight, and others were brought by the worshippers. More in the center of the room was a railed platform on which the reader generally stood up to read, or sat to teach. The people were in front, the women on one side, and the men on the other, with a partition between them; boxes were placed at the doors for alms; and a notice board with the names of the “excommunicated.”
In some such a building — varied greatly, no doubt, both in size and grandeur — some of the Lord’s miracles were performed, and much of His teaching given. It was His custom, as we read, to visit the synagogues especially on the Sabbath-days, where He was sure to find a congregation, and where, no doubt, the most devout of the people would always be found.
At first the Christians had no other meeting-places. At Jerusalem we know they were continually in the temple (Acts 2:46). But at Ephesus, when Paul, after spending three months in “disputing and persuading the things concerning the kingdom of God,” and being met by opposition from those who believed not, he departed from them, and “separated the disciples.” Opposition from the Jews would naturally compel the disciples to meet by themselves, and thus become Christian assemblies, as we soon find was the case generally.
The Sanhedrim
This is a body of men often alluded to in the New Testament by the name of “the Council.” It is Sanhedrim in every place except Matthew 12:14 and Acts 25:12. It is traced by many to the “seventy men of the elders,” chosen to assist Moses in judicial matters, named in Numbers 11:16.
From the New Testament we gather that it was composed of the chief priests, elders, and scribes (Mark 15:1, etc.).
Matthew 5:21-22, throws some light upon the judicial courts among the Jews: “Whosoever shall kill shall be in danger of [or, be subject to] the judgment [κρίσις],” doubtless alluding to the local courts, which, according to Deuteronomy 16:18, were to be instituted in every city. According to the Rabbins it consisted of twenty-three members; but according to Josephus (Ant. iv. 8, 14) of seven men. They had power to try for murder and put the criminal to death, according to Matthew 5:21, until that power was taken away by the Romans.
No doubt these local courts were held in the synagogues; the passages we have referred to show that in the same place lesser punishments were inflicted.
The Lord, after shewing that now to be angry with a brother without a cause subjected a person to the same judgment, goes on to speak of a graver offence: one calling a brother “Raca” should be subject to the Sanhedrim, the larger council held at Jerusalem. This court also had at one time power to take life; and their usual mode of execution was by stoning — a much more agonizing death than by the sword.
A third offence subjected a person to “hell fire,” Gehenna: alluding to the valley of Hinnom, where the corpse of the malefactor was thrown, to be devoured by the worm or by fire.
Our Lord when arrested was brought before the Sanhedrim, which was assembled, though it was night. In the morning a full council was held, which proceeded to deliver Him to Pilate (Mark 15:1).
Peter and John were also brought before the Sanhedrim (Acts 4), but were released with threats. In chapter 5 Peter and those with him were again arrested, and after being beaten, were dismissed with a command not to speak in the name of Jesus.
In chapter 7 Stephen was brought before the Sanhedrim. By his speech before them “they were cut to the heart, and gnashed on him with their teeth. ... cast him out of the city, and stoned him,” notwithstanding that their authority to put to death had been taken from them.
In chapter 23 Paul is brought before the Sanhedrim. Ananias the high priest was no doubt presiding. The council was composed of both Pharisees and Sadducees, and the party spirit ran so high that Paul had no sooner said that he was a Pharisee, the son of a Pharisee, and of the hope and resurrection of the dead he was called in question, than there was a great dissension, and the Pharisees said: “We find no evil in this man: but if a spirit or an angel hath spoken to him, let us not fight against God.” He had to be rescued by the soldiers lest he should be “pulled in pieces.” A sad picture of the highest tribunal of the rulers of Israel!
We also find that the Sanhedrim had fallen so low that they were parties to the plot to murder Paul; but God was watching over His devoted servant, and delivered him out of their hands. Alas for the people who were governed by such rulers!
From Manners and Customs of the Bible:
Matthew 26:59. All the council, sought false witness against Jesus, to put him to death.
This was the supreme court of the Jewish nation, which heard appeals from inferior courts, and tried cases of greater gravity than those which came before them. It is commonly known as the Sanhedrim, though the word is sometimes written Sanhedrin, and occasionally Synhedrium, Synedium, Synedrion. It is the Hebraizing of the Greek word συνέδριον, a sitting together, or, as in the text and in numerous other places, a council.
The number of members in the Sanhedrim is usually considered to have been seventy-one, though on this subject there is a diversity of opinion among authorities, some fixing the number at seventy, and others at seventy-two. Twenty-three members were necessary to make a quorum.
The origin of this council is thought by some writers to be found in the company of seventy elders who were appointed to assist Moses in the government of the Israelites. See Numbers 11:16-17. Others, however, deny that this could have been the origin of the Sanhedrim, and affirm that the seventy elders were only intended to serve a temporary purpose, since no trace of them is found after the death of Moses. They could hardly have been judges, as the members of the Sanhedrim were, since there were more than sixty thousand judges among the Israelites already. See Michaelis Laws of Moses, vol.1, p. 247. Those who agree with Michaelis in his views on this subject suppose that the Sanhedrim was instituted after the captivity. It is quite likely, however, that the council of Moses may have been the germ from whence the idea of the Sanhedrim was developed.
The members of the Sanhedrim were chosen from the chief priests, elders, and scribes. It was necessary to have priests and scribes in the body, and they were usually quite numerous, though the majority of the members are thought to have been laymen. The relative numbers of the three classes are not definitely known. The Pharisees and the Sadducees were both represented, sometimes the one and sometimes the other being in the majority. Most of the scribes probably belonged to the Pharisees.
Great care was taken in the selection of members, who were required to be morally and physically blameless. They were also expected to be learned in law, in sciences, and in languages. It was necessary for them to have been judges in their native towns; to have been transferred from there to the small Sanhedrin], which met at the temple mount; and thence to the second small Sanhedrim, which met at the entrance of the temple hall. They were not eligible unless they were the fathers of families, in order that they might be able to sympathize when cases involving domestic affairs were brought before them. If this rule was in force at the time of Stephen’s trial, and it as many suppose, Saul of Tarsus was a member of the Sanhedrim at that time, then Saul must have been a married man and a father. See Cony Beare and Howson, Life and Epistles of St. Paul, vol.1, p. 71.
The officers of the Sanhedrim) were a president, a vice-president, and a sage or referee, all of whom were elected by the members. The president was called Nasi that is, “prince” or “elevated one.” He represented the civil and religious interests of the Jewish nation before the Roman government abroad, and before the different Jewish congregations at home. In the Sanhedrm he occupied the highest seat, summed up the votes of the elders, and determined traditions. The high priest was eligible to the office of president of the council, but had no right to preside ex officio. He must first be elected to the office. The vice-president was called Ab-beth-din, that is, “father of the house of judgment.” He led and controlled the discussions on disputed points. The sage or referee was called Chakam, that is, “wise one.” It was his duty to put into proper shape the subject for discussion and present it to the council. The vice-president sat on the right of the president, and the sage or referee on his left.
The council held daily sessions, lasting from the close of the morning sacrifice to the commencement of the evening sacrifice. On Sabbaths and festival days, however, they held no sessions. The place of their meeting is not precisely known; it seems to have varied at different times. A number of years before the birth of Christ a building was erected within the temple enclosure, and called the “Hall of Squares,” or “Hall of Stones,” because of the square-hewn stones which made the floor. Talmudical authorities do not agree as to the position of this hall, whether north or south of the temple proper; but all agree that it was situated to the east. In the most carefully arranged plans of the temple it is usually put to the southeast. Here the Sanhedrim met until shortly before the death of Christ, when they removed to a place in the Court of the Gentiles, and were not even confined to that. They met in the high-priest’s palace when Jesus was brought before them. They subsequently settled at Tiberias.
When in session the Sanhedrim sat in a semicircle, the officers being in the center. The members sat cross-legged on the low cushions, or on carpets spread on the floor.
The council extended its jurisdiction beyond Palestine to every place where Jews had settlements. See Acts 9:1-2; 22:5. They could only try cases which involved violations of ecclesiastical law. They condemned to corporeal, and also to capital punishments. The latter were restricted to four modes: stoning, burning, beheading, and strangling. Forty years before the destruction of the temple the power of inflicting capital punishment was limited to those cases where the sentence of the Sanhedrim had been confirmed by the Roman procurator.
The Sanhedrim is often referred to in the New Testament. Besides the frequent mention of it in connection with the history of Christ, we find it engaged as an instrument of persecuting the apostles. Peter and John were brought before it (Acts 4:1-21). Not long after, all the apostles were arraigned (Acts 5:17-42. In a short time Stephen was brought for trial (Acts 6:12-15). Paul also, in later years, stood in the presence of this august body (Acts 22:30).
In addition to the great Sanhedrim there were smaller councils, for an account of which see note on Matthew 10:17.