Boyd’s Bible Dictionary:
(led together). The Jewish assembly for social and religious purposes seems to have had its origin during the captivity, or to have been an outgrowth of it (Ezra 8:15; Neh. 8:2; 9:1). The casual, or house, assemblages soon ran into regular congregations, with suitable buildings and stated meetings, at requisite points. These were the synagogues, often elaborate and costly, presided over by a chief, or rabbi, assisted by a council of elders (Mark 5:22,35; Luke 4:20; John 16:2; Acts 18:8).
Concise Bible Dictionary:
This word occurs but once in the AV of the Old Testament (Psalm 74:8), but the same Hebrew word (med) is many times translated “congregation.” Mr. Darby and the RV margin translate in Psalm 74:8 “places of assembly.” The word συναγωγή occurs very often in the LXX, but as a translation of some twenty different Hebrew words: “congregation” or “gathering” is the main thought. As far as is known there were no buildings called synagogues in Old Testament times. It has been judged that they arose after the captivity, and may perhaps have been occasioned by a desire to perpetuate the work begun by the people calling upon Ezra to read to them the book of the law, when those who heard were deeply affected (Neh. 8-9).
Synagogue at Capernaum—4th or 5th century.
In the exploration of Palestine remains of buildings have been discovered, which are judged to have been synagogues. They are uniform in plan, and differ from the ruins of churches, temples, and mosques. In two of them an inscription in Hebrew was over the main entrance, one in connection with a seven-branched candlestick, and the other with figures of the paschal lamb. A plain rectangular building answered the purpose. They were often erected by general contributions, though at times by a rich Jew, or in some instances by a Gentile, as the one built by the centurion at Capernaum (Luke 7:5).
An ark was placed at one end, in which were deposited the sacred books. Near this was the place of honor, or the “chief seats,” which some sought after (Matt. 23:6, James 2:2-3—where the word translated “assembly” is “synagogue”). Nearer the center of the building was a raised platform with a kind of desk or pulpit, where the reader stood. A screen separated the women from the men.
It is known that a portion of the law and of the prophets was read every Sabbath, and it is clear from Acts 13:15 that if anyone was present who had a “word of exhortation for the people,” the opportunity was given for its delivery. Prayers also were doubtless offered, but how far these resembled the modern Jewish ritual is not known. The Lord spoke of the hypocrites who loved to pray standing in the synagogues, where they also ostentatiously offered their alms (Matt. 6:2,5).
It was the custom of the Lord to visit the synagogues, and in them He wrought some of His miracles and taught the people (Matt. 4:23). In Luke 4 the Lord, in the synagogue at Nazareth, stood up to read, and there was handed to Him the book of the prophet Isaiah. After reading a portion which set forth His own attitude among them (stopping in the middle of a sentence), He sat down and spake “gracious words” to them. His exposition of the passage is not given except “This day is this scripture fulfilled in your ears.” It is recorded that the people were in the habit of freely expressing their opinions respecting what was taught, and here they said, “Is not this Joseph’s son?” In Acts 13:45 the Jews “spake against those things which were spoken by Paul, contradicting and blaspheming.”
Paul also was permitted to speak in the synagogue at Damascus, when he showed the Jews that Jesus was the Son of God (Acts 9:20); and often afterward he “reasoned” or “disputed” (διαλέγομαι) with the Jews in their synagogues (Acts 18:4, 19; Acts 19:8).
It is important to see that everywhere in their own buildings a clear testimony was borne by the Lord Himself as to the significance of His appearance among them; and afterward by Paul and others to the work He had accomplished by His death and resurrection for them—reference being constantly made to the scriptures which they professed to reverence and to follow. The reality of the testimony was happily proved by the salvation of many, and which left those who refused it without excuse.
To be “put out of the synagogue” was the Jewish excommunication. The Lord told His disciples that this would be enforced towards them (John 9:22; John 16:2). The only case recorded is that of the man born blind, when he bore testimony to Christ. It was a happy exchange for him, for the Lord thereupon revealed Himself to him as the Son of God (John 9:34-38). Of others we read that many of the chief rulers believed on the Lord, but feared to confess Him lest they should be cast out, “for they loved the praise of men more than the praise of God” (John 12:42-43).
It is evident from what Pilate said to the Jews in reference to the Lord—”Take ye him, and judge him according to your law”—that they were allowed to judge certain matters and to inflict limited punishments (John 18:31). This appears to have been carried out wherever there was a synagogue, though it is not clear who were the judges, probably the “elders” mentioned in Luke 7:3. The Lord told His disciples that they would be scourged in the synagogues (Matt. 10:17); and Paul confessed that when persecuting the church he had imprisoned and beaten in every synagogue those that believed on the Lord (Acts 22:19). Paul himself doubtless suffered the like punishment in the same buildings (2 Cor. 11:24). Thus a very undignified use was made of their places of worship.
The officials connected with the synagogues were—
1. The zaqenim, πρεσβύτεροι, the elders (Luke 7). These were presided over by
2. An ἀρχισυνάγωγος, ruler of the synagogue (Mark 5:22,35-36,38; Luke 8:49; Luke 13:14; Acts 13:15; Acts 18:8,17). In the last two passages the AV has “chief ruler,” but the Greek is the same.
3. The sheliach, a delegate of the congregation, who acted as chief reader: he is not mentioned in the New Testament.
4. The chazzan, ὑπηρέτης, translated in the AV “servant, minister, officer,” only once mentioned in connection with the synagogue as the “attendant” to whom the Lord gave the book when He had done reading (Luke 4:20).
5. The batlanim, described as “leisure men,” who attended meetings regularly. There were at least ten of these attached to each synagogue, so as to form a quorum, ten being the lowest number to form a congregation.
SYNAGOGUE OF SATAN. Some who professed, like Jews, to have a claim to be considered the people of God on the ground of hereditary right. These are declared to be liars, for they really form a congregation of Satan, doing his work in seducing the saints from their heavenly character (Rev. 2:9; Rev. 3:9). In both cases they may be Jews actually, though disowned of God.
“636. The Synagogue” From Manners and Customs of the Bible:
Matthew 4:23. Teaching in their synagogues, and preaching the gospel of the kingdom.
See also Mark 1:39; Luke 4:44.
Jewish writers claim for the synagogue a very remote antiquity, but its origin probably dates during the captivity. There were no fixed proportions in the building, as there were in the tabernacle and in the temple. When a synagogue was to be built the highest ground that could be found in the vicinity was selected for the site and, if possible, the top was erected above the roofs of surrounding buildings. Where this could not be done a tall pole was placed on the summit in order to make the building conspicuous. Synagogues were often built without roofs. They were also so constructed that the worshipers, as they entered and prayed, faced Jerusalem. See note on Daniel 6:10 (#595). At the Jerusalem end was the chest or ark which contained the book of the law. Toward the middle of the building was a raised platform, and in the center of the platform was a pulpit. A low partition five or six feet high divided the men from the women.
The leading object of the synagogue was not worship, but instruction The temple was “the house of prayer” (Matt. 21:13). The synagogue was never called by that name. Reading and expounding the law was the great business of the synagogue; and, though a liturgical service was connected with these, it was subordinate to them.
The priests had no official standing or privileges in the synagogue, though they were always honored when present. They were the hereditary officials of the temple, but the officers of the synagogue were elected either by the congregation or by the council.
The leader of the congregation might ask any suitable person to address the assembly. Persons who were known as learned men, or as the expounders of religious faith, were allowed to speak. Hence in the text and in the parallel passages we find Christ publicly speaking in the synagogue. See also Matthew 13:54; Mark 6:2; Luke 4:15; 4:16-22; John 18:20. So also the apostles on their missionary journey addressed the people in these places of public gathering. See Acts 13:5,15; 14:1; 17:10-11; 17:17; 18:19.
“656. Councils - Discipline of the Synagogue” From Manners and Customs of the Bible:
Matthew 10:17. They will deliver you up to the councils, and they will scourge you in their synagogues.
See also Mark 13:9.
1. In addition to the Great Sanhedrim or Council (for a description of which see note on Matt. 26:59, #718) there were councils of an inferior degree. There is some obscurity in connection with their history and construction. They are supposed to have been originated by Moses. See Deuteronomy 16:18. In later times there were two of them in Jerusalem, and one in each town in Palestine. The rabbins say there were twenty-three judges to each of these councils in every place where the population was a hundred and twenty, and three judges where the population was less. Josephus, however, says that there were seven judges to each council, and that each judge had two Levites to assist him.
These councils had power not only to judge civil cases, but also such criminal cases as did not come within the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court, or Sanhedrim. In the provinces they at first met in the market-place, but afterward in a room adjoining the synagogue. Some writers suppose that these local provincial councils are identical with the “elders” and “rulers of the synagogue,” so often mentioned in the New Testament. See article “Synagogue,” in KITTO’S Cyclopedia, vol. 3, p. 902 b. See, further, note on Acts 13:15 (#834). The connection in the text between councils and scourging seems to indicate this, unless it can be shown, as some have asserted, that the “rulers of the synagogue” formed a council apart from the smaller Sanhedrim.
2. The discipline of the synagogue was severe. Besides excommunication, (see note on John 9:22, #802) scourging was sometimes practiced. The number of the stripes was limited by law to forty (Deut. 25:3). To prevent the possibility of excess, by mistake in counting, the legal number was reduced by one. Paul was thus beaten five distinct times (2 Cor. 11:24). It is said, however, that in aggravated cases the stripes were laid on with greater severity than usual.
The rabbins reckon a hundred and sixty-eight faults to be punished by scourging; in fact, all punishable faults to which the law has not annexed the penalty of death. “The offender was stripped from his shoulders to his middle, and tied by his arms to a pretty low pillar, that he might lean forward, and the executioner might more easily come at his hack.... It is said that, after the stripping of the criminal, the executioner mounted upon a stone, to have more power over him, and then scourged him both on the back and breasts with thongs made of an ox’s hide, in open court, before the thee of the judges” (Burder, Oriental Customs, No. 949).
Scourging in the synagogues is also referred to in Matthew 23:34. Paul admits that in his days of wickedness he had in this manner maltreated Christians (Acts 22:19).
For an account of Roman scourging, see note on Matthew 27:26 (#724).
“762. Synagogue Building” From Manners and Customs of the Bible:
Luke 7:5. For he loveth our nation, and he hath built us a synagogue.
It was no unusual thing for one man to build a synagogue at his own expense. If, as in this case, a Gentile built the sacred edifice, the Jews had no scruples in receiving the gift, even if he did not become a proselyte, as some suppose this centurion to have been. They held that the holiness of the place consisted, not so much in the building, as in its being set apart and dedicated to holy uses.
“834. The Law and the Prophets Rulers of the Synagogue” From Manners and Customs of the Bible:
Acts 13:15. After the reading of the law and the prophets the rulers of the synagogue sent unto them.
The custom of reading the law publicly was very ancient. The “prophets” are said to have been added in a singular way. “When Antiochus Epiphanes burnt the book of the law, and forbade the reading of it, the Jews, in the room of it, selected some passages out of the prophets which they thought came nearest in words and sense to the sections of the law, and read them in their stead; but when the law was restored again they still continued the reading of the prophetic sections” (Stehelin's Traditions of the Jews, cited by Burden Oriental Customs, No. 1160). Hence the expression “the law and the prophets” was used to denote the portion of Scripture that was read in the synagogue, and, by synecdoche, the whole of the Jewish Scriptures. See Matthew 10:17; Luke 16:29. As a matter of fact, however, the Hagiographa, or “Holy Writings,” which composed the third part of the Jewish Scriptures (see note on Luke 24:44, #789) was not read in the synagogue.
The “ruler of the synagogue” occupied a very important position. In the temple synagogue he was the third officer in rank; the first officer being the high priest, and the second the chief of the priests. In provincial synagogues the “ruler” was supreme. No one was eligible to this office until he had a certificate from the Great Sanhedrim that he possessed the requisite qualifications. His election, however, was by the members of the synagogue. It was his duty to supervise all matters connected with worship.
Sometimes this office is mentioned in the singular number, as if there were but one ruler to the synagogue. See Mark 5:35-36,38; Luke 8:49; 13:14. At other times the plural form is used, as in the text. See Mark 5:22. The idea of plurality is also implied in the expression, “a ruler of the synagogue” (Luke 8:41) and in the words “chief ruler” (Acts 18:8,17). Neander suggests that “we must make the limitation, that in smaller places an individual, as in larger towns a plurality, stood at the head of the synagogue. It is most probable that, although all presbyters were called ἀρχισυνάγωγοι yet one who acted as president was distinguished by the title of ἀρχισυνάγωγος as primus inter pares” (Planting and Raining, Edition Bohn, vol.1, p. 36, note). Thus the “rulers” would be the mine as the “elders” mentioned in Luke 7:3 and elsewhere. Some suppose them to be identical with the local Sanhedrin). See note on Matthew 10:17 (#656).
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