That interesting department of natural history—zoology, thus classifies the animal kingdom: first, land mammalia; second, birds or all kinds of flying fowl; third, reptiles or creeping things; fourth, fishes; and fifth, invertebrates. These distributions of animal life are, of course, most useful when scientific accuracy is required.; but to a general reader and for all practical purposes the Scripture classification is amply sufficient as, first, marine creatures; second, winged and flying fowl; and third, land animals. We have the seas, then heaven or the air, and lastly the land respectively stocked with life (Gen. 1:20-25). This is the order too observable in modern geological research.
The learned scientists of our proud and highly educated nineteenth century are wont to discharge their intellectual shafts at the credulity and ignorance displayed by the author of the book of Genesis. "This ancient document," say they, "was good enough for a rude and barbarous age, for the world in its infancy; but the Pentateuch has served its purpose, and we can easily afford to lay it aside as a book possessing not the slightest authority, but we will revere it because of its high antiquity, for it is hoary with age. Science has shown that the cosmogony of Moses is altogether out of date and quite irreconcilable with the clear deductions of modern light upon creation and its wonders." Now, we strongly object to the statement that science corroborates the Word of God, nay, it is that word which confirms and seals the certain and carefully ascertained facts and conclusions of science, and adds a luster to these studies when taken up in the fear of God, which is the beginning of wisdom. We will put two or three plain statements before our readers, frankly avowing that our knowledge of the sciences is extremely limited, but our faith in the Word of God supreme: it liveth forever while we are but creatures of a day. First, Has one fact been produced from the realm of nature which contradicts any statement in the Word of God, and if so, Where? and When? We await the proof Second, Is it not a fact that in all, or nearly all, departments of physical science mistakes have been made, and that succeeding investigators have corrected the ignorance and rebuked the assumptions of their predecessors? Third, Has it not been repeatedly demonstrated that the Bible account of creation is not merely in substantial accord with established facts, but in numerous points circumstantially confirms the teachings of science, and which till late years were held to be contradictory? We will adduce two or three examples. How could light exist apart from the sun? Science, however, on the principle of electricity, has established the fact, but it was in the Bible; yes, and in the much abused book of Genesis thousands of years before this was known. The Christian believed it because on the first day God caused the light to be, and on the fourth set the sun in the solar system. He needs not the voice of science to establish the supreme authority of Holy Scripture. The "Book of Stone" has informed the geologist as to the order and ascending scale of animal life, but the Christian can triumphantly point to the Mosaic record of creation and show it written there thousands of years before geology ever had a votary. Ethnology has been pleased to say that it has satisfactorily established the unity of the race, and further, that the human family as now divided can be resolved into three great branches. How much better to have believed in the unity and dignity of the race from the second chapter of Genesis (Gen. 2), and in the three great divisions of mankind from the tenth chapter of that same book (Gen. 10). When will men learn to be somewhat more cautious and careful in their assertions; a little modesty, after being proved to have been wrong so often, might surely befit these men of science. Of this we are fully assured from our gleanings in the writings of the school-men that the Scripture adage, "knowledge puffeth up," is abundantly witnessed in the rash assumptions and unbelieving attacks made upon a document inspired and written by Divine authority 3500 years ago. Some of the brightest intellects which have ever entered the temple of science have cheerfully paid court and homage to the Word of God. Scripture, of course, is independent of man; it never borrows light, but it adds a luster to its students, and it is right and becoming that its pre-eminent dignity be duly acknowledged.
The animal creation is further divided into clean and unclean (Lev. 11 and Deut. 14); the former being for sacrifice and for food, while the latter is regarded as unfit for either. In these ceremonial enactments Jehovah had a much higher object in view than the simple regulation of His people's food. There was a moral end in these instructions. God was teaching His people holiness, and although as Christians we are not under these legal requirements, the spirit of them should be cultivated. "Whether, therefore, ye eat or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory of God" (1 Cor. 10:31).
Of clean land animals there must be the ability to chew the cud, and walk with cloven foot; the hoof must be divided. These two inseparable and distinguishing marks were essential. The camel, coney, hare, &c., might possess one of these qualifications, but they were pronounced "unclean," because they lacked the other (Lev. 11:3-7). Again, all marine creatures having fins and scales, thus possessing the ability to swim, were "clean," and could be freely used by a ceremonially holy people (Lev. 11:9-12). All carnivorous and nocturnal birds were amongst the prohibited class (Lev. 11:13-19). Reptiles and creeping things in general were also unclean and an abomination (Lev. 11:20-42), but the various kinds of locust who "leaped" along the ground, neither crawling nor creeping, were allowed for food.
In the following compendium of animal creation will be found embraced all, or nearly so, of every living creature named in the Scriptures, and are arranged in strict alphabetical order. Amongst the birds it will be observed that those of prey predominate. There is also a considerable variety of small birds who inhabit Palestine not named at all. The oft-recurring expression "after his kind" (Lev. 11) intimate a species, and not specialty. Of fishes, none are named although as a class often referred to in the sacred pages and the distinction between clean and unclean accurately pointed out. The waters of Palestine abound in fishes, the Dead Sea excepted. By-and-bye, however, its waters will be healed, and teem with fish in all variety, affording constant occupation to the fisherman on its shores (Ezek. 47)
Adder.-References, Gen. 49:17; Prov. 23:32, etc. A venomous reptile of the serpent species. Its characteristics will be best known by carefully consulting the Scripture references.
Ant.-References, Prov. 6:6-8;30:25. These industrious little insects are very numerous in Palestine. They form a colony, hut without any recognized leader, and yet labor harmoniously in storing up during summer food for winter use.
Ape.-References, 2 Chron. 9:21; 1 Kings 10:22. This is one of the few animals not metaphorically mentioned in Scripture. It was not a native of Palestine, but was introduced into the country every three years by Solomon, whose ships imported them from Southern India or the large island of Ceylon. What species of the monkey tribe is referred to we cannot tell.
Ass.-References, Gen. 12:16; Job 39:5, etc. In Palestine and adjacent countries, the ass was the favorite traveling animal, and was ridden by kings, nobles, and persons of distinction. It betokened peace (Zech. 9:9), as the horse did war (Rev. 19:11). The wild ass is noted for its stubbornness, fleetness, love of freedom, etc.
Badger.-References, Ex. 25:5; Num. 4:8. The skin of this animal was used as an outer covering in the tabernacle, and was peculiarly well adapted for the purpose, being exceedingly durable, impervious to the weather, and the fur being long and thick. The skin of the badger is still a valuable commodity in the East. We see no reason for identifying this animal with the "seal," as some do.
Bat.-References, Lev. 11:19; Isa. 2:20, etc. This nocturnal little animal dreads the light. Swarms of them inhabit the caverns and dark recesses so common in Palestine. It was an unclean animal under the law, and is the chosen symbol of darkness and desolation.
Bear.-References, 2 Sam. 17:8; Dan. 7:5, etc. The fierceness, cruelty, and tenacity of grasp displayed by this animal are frequently referred to in the prophets. Anciently it was the dread and terror of the Palestinean shepherds. Now, however, the bear is only to be seen in the mountainous parts of the country.
Beast.-References, Dan. 7; Rev. 4 The four great empires are represented as wild beasts in the book of Daniel, but in Rev. 4 and Rev. 5 the word should be translated "living creatures." "Beasts of the earth" are distinguished from "cattle," in Gen. 1:24, the former being wild animals, while the latter are domesticated.
Bee.-References, Judg. 14:8; Deut. 1:44, etc. This most useful insect was and is still most numerous in the East. The dry and warm climate and varied flora of the country have made Palestine famous for its honey "a land flowing with honey." From the numerous hives, both of wild and domesticated bees, the inhabitants from time immemorial have derived a considerable revenue from the sale of the rich honey so plentiful, being found in rocks, hollow trees, etc. The immense swarms and fierce attacks upon man and beast are frequently alluded to in Scripture.
Beetle.-Reference, Lev. 11:22. As this is the only place where the word "beetle" occurs, and judging from the description given, it must have been of the "locust" species, and hence allowed for food.
Behemoth.-Reference, Job 40:15-24. This word only occurs in this passage in Job, and there is little doubt but that the huge amphibious animal referred to is the hippopotamus, frequenting the rivers of Africa, and anciently found in the Jordan. "He is the chief of the ways of God" in the animal creation.
Bittern.-References, Isa. 14:23; Zeph. 2:14, etc. This solitary bird selects the ruins, wastes, and marshy pines, where it utters its peculiar cry during the silence of the night. It is connected with the truly awful desolations which befell Nineveh, Babylon, and Idumea.
Boar.-Reference, Psa. 80:13. The wild boar, although only mentioned once, was and is yet found in large numbers in the woods of Palestine, and is one of the most destructive animals amongst the crops, vineyards, and flocks. Amongst Jews and Moslems this animal is regarded as peculiarly unclean.
Bull.-References, Isa. 51:20; Deut. 14:5. This wild animal was allowed the Jews for food. It has been considered, from the reference in Isaiah, that some species of antelope is meant, but it cannot be said with certainty what particular animal is referred to; "wild bull" and "wild ox" are the translations of the same Hebrew word.
Calf.-References, Gen. 18:7; Amos 6:4. The bull calf was the favorite animal for food, and many were stalled and carefully looked after for this purpose, while others were kept ready for agricultural purposes only. The bull calf was a national form of worship in Egypt, and we may add of Israel too (Ex. 32).
Camel.-References, Judg. 7:12; 2 Kings 8:9, etc. This valuable animal and beast of burden—"the ship of the desert"—is probably the most useful animal in the East. It is indispensable in treading the Arabian Desert, and constituted an important part of wealth in Bible lands, as the numerous Scripture references show.
Canker-worm.-References, Joel 1:4; 2:25, etc. In the few passages where this insect is named its destructive power is referred to. It is an apt and striking illustration of the utter desolation and wasting caused by countless and irresistible enemies; and its ravages in the East are dreaded as the plague. The "canker-worm " is the Eastern "locust" in its larva state.
Caterpillar.-References, Isa. 33:4; Psa. 78:46, etc. The Hebrew word for "canker-worm" signifies licker up, and for "caterpillar," consumer. No doubt The locust is meant, but in the state before it assumes its wings. It is an emblem of utter wasting and destruction.
Chameleon.-Reference, Lev. 11:30. As the original word denotes strength, it is believed that the reference is to one of the large and powerful lizard species abounding in Palestine. It was an unclean animal under the Law.
Chamois.-Reference, Deut. 14:5. As the animal known to us as the "chamois" never inhabited Palestine or adjacent countries, it is generally regarded, in this the only passage where the name occurs, as the wild sheep now almost extinct in Bible lands. It was a clean animal under the Law.
Cockatrice.--References, Isa. 11:8; Jer. 8:17, etc. The particular reptile referred to cannot with certainty be determined, but the various Scripture passages in which the name occurs show that a deadly, poisonous snake is meant.
Cock.-References, Matt. 26:34; Mark 14:30. This domestic fowl is only mentioned in the Gospels, and was certainly unknown to the Jews previous to the captivity, being imported from India. The certainty and regularity of its midnight crowing is connected with some solemn warnings and teachings in the Gospels.
Colt.-References, Gen. 49:2; 32:15, etc. Young camel or ass. The colts were frequently used for riding by persons of distinction, and represent an ungovernable will, as in the book of Job and elsewhere.
Coney.-References, Psa. 104:18; Pro. 30:26, etc. An unclean animal. This small animal inhabits the rocks, and is exceedingly watchful and wary on the approach of danger. The wisdom of this diminutive little creature—about the size of the rabbit—in selecting high rocks for its dwelling is a lesson to us worth pondering.
Coral.-References, Ezek. 27:16; Job 28:18. The finest coral was procured from the Red Sea or Persian Gulf, and was greatly prized for its beauty and value. Coral is the interesting workmanship of millions of sea creatures who lived and died at the bottom of the waters.
Cormorant-References, Lev. 11:17; Deut. 14:17. Another of the unclean birds abounding about the rivers and sea coasts of Palestine. The word literally means plunger; it is one of those birds who plunge into the water in pursuit of its prey.
Cow.-References, Lev. 22:28; Isa. 7:21, etc. The cow formed an integral part of wealth in such an agricultural country as Palestine, and generally denotes abundance. The 'bullock" on the other hand is the chosen symbol of service and patient labor, and was the most valuable animal offered in sacrifice on Jewish altars.
Crane.-References, Jer. 8:7; Isa. 38:14., This gregarious bird is of large size and is remarkable for two characteristics, both noted in the references—first, its peculiar trumpet-like cry, and second, its regular migratory habits.
Cuckow.-References, Deut. 14:15; Lev. 11:16. A species of sea-fowl, but the particular bird referred to is uncertain. It is ranked amongst the unclean birds under the Law.
Dog.-References, Psa. 22:16; Phil. 3:2, etc. The Scripture references to this most common of all animals are, as a rule, employed to signify contempt and cruelty. The Jews still speak of "Gentile dogs," and Mahomedans of "Christian dogs."
Dove.-References, Gen. 8:9; Sol. 2:14, etc. This was one of the clean birds, and could be offered in sacrifice by even the poorest of the people. The Scripture references are equally abundant in Old and New Testaments, and represent certain gracious qualities. It is also the symbol of peace.
Dragon.-References, Mic. 1:8; Job 30:29, etc. Whatever animal may be meant in these and other passages it is difficult to say, but certainly it is the selected symbol denoting cruelty, desolation, and utter loneliness,
Dromedary.-References, Isa. 60:6; Jer. 2:23. An exceedingly swift animal of the camel species. Wherever the word occurs in Scripture a swift, speedy animal is meant, and one smaller than the ordinary camel.
Eagle.-References, Lev. 11:13; Deut. 32:11, etc. This unclean bird of prey is frequently alluded to in Scripture. Its swiftness, love of offspring, keenness of vision, longevity, and other characteristics are noted. It is a symbol of judgment (Matt. 24:28).
Elephant-References, 1 Kings 10:22; 2 Chron. 9:21. This huge animal, so well known in India and Africa, was not introduced into Canaan till the wars of Antiochus of Syria with Egypt, and is not even named in Scripture, save in the margin of the passages here given.
Fallow deer.-References, 1 King 4: 23; Deut. 14:5. This clean animal is noted for its agility, gracefulness, and beauty. It figures largely in Eastern song.
Ferret.-Reference, Lev. 11:30. This unclean animal is only mentioned once in Scripture, and is believed to denote some species of lizard.
Flea. -References, 1 Sam. 24:14; 26:20. This little insect swarms in countless numbers, and is of course in all warm countries exceedingly troublesome. It is used in these, the only two passages where the word occurs, as the expression of insignificance.
Fly.-References, Ex. 8:21-31; Eccl. 10:1, etc. In these and other Scriptures there is no particular species of fly pointed out. Their number and variety are almost legion in Bible lands.
Foal.-References, Gen. 32:15; Zech. 9:9, etc. The Mosaic law was most careful in caring for the young of animals generally, which the "foal," the young of the "horse" and of the "ass" shared.
Fox.-References, Judg. 15:4; Ezek. 13:4, etc. This nocturnal and gregarious animal is undoubtedly the "jackal" in most of the passages where the word "fox" occurs. They are still plentiful in the East and assemble during the night in large packs and are exceedingly troublesome to the gardens and vineyards and to domestic cattle and fowls. Cunning, cruelty, and destructiveness are the characteristics of this animal as pointed out in the Word of God.
Frog.-References, Ex. 8:2; Rev. 16:13. This amphibious reptile is several times mentioned in Scripture but always, save in the Apocalypse, in connection with Egypt. The "frog" abounds in the rivers and marshy places in Syria but especially in Egypt.
Glede.-Reference, Deut. 14:13. This unclean bird is probably of the vulture species. In the only other passage where the original word occurs it is translated "vulture" (Lev. 11:14).
Gnat.-Reference, Matt. 23:24. The reference is to the smallest of insects which is contrasted with the largest Palestinean animal the camel. The words in the text "strain at," should be "strain out."
Goat.-References, Lev. 16:8,10,26; Num. 15:24-29, etc. This clean animal was pre-eminently the sin-offering victim. In patriarchial times especially the goat formed an important and valuable item of wealth. Its flesh could. be eaten for food, its milk was greatly prized, and its skin largely used for numerous purposes. It is the symbol of the strong and compact Macedonian power (Dan. 8:5), of the wicked generally (Matt. 25:31-33), and of the great and mighty (Ezek. 39:18). The habits and qualities of this well-known animal, both wild and domesticated, are frequently referred to in the Sacred Writings.
Grasshopper.-References, Num. 13:33; Eccl. 12:5, etc. This troublesome insect and Eastern scourge is a species of locust, but permitted as food to the Jews. The immense swarms and destructive character of these insects to vegetation are described with remarkable minuteness and graphically portrayed in the prophet Joel. Teaching and lessons of great interest are drawn from the ways and habits of this very common little creature in Palestine and the East.
Greyhound.-Reference, Prov. 30:31. This word only occurs once in the Bible and the margin which explains the meaning of the word as "girt in the loins," also says it is the "horse." A fleet animal is no doubt referred to.
Hare.-References, Lev. 11:6; Deut. 14:7. This was another of the unclean animals and hence prohibited for food. The Palestinean hare closely resembles our own.
Hart.-References, Isa. 35:6; Psa. 42 I, etc. This Mosaically clean animal was a species of deer and is noted for its swiftness, activity, affection, and earnest longings for water. There are some precious lessons drawn from the movements and habits of this graceful animal.
Hawk.-References, Lev. 11:16; Job 39:26. This unclean species of bird is the common name for small birds of prey of which there are a considerable number in Palestine. God gives the wisdom, or rather instinct, to these migratory birds to seek a warmer climate, so says Job.
Heifer.-References, Gen. 15:9; Num. 19, etc. This animal was simply a young cow. In the special provision for wilderness defilement a red heifer was to be sacrificed as a sin-offering. The untamed character and unbroken will of these well-fed animals are beautifully alluded to in the Prophets, and their mournful lowing, as figuring the desolation and distress of Moab (Isa. 15:5), is told us in the grandest of all the Prophets.
Heron.-References, Lev. 11:19; Deut. 14:18. This unclean bird is but one of a species common enough in Palestine and Syria generally. In both of the passages referred to—the only ones where the heron is named—it is said, "the heron after her kind," showing that a species is meant and not a particular bird merely.
Hind. -References, Gen. 49:21; 2 Sam. 22:34, etc. This beautiful animal is the female deer, while the "hart" is the male stag. The intense love of liberty, and other characteristics of this animal are accurately depicted in the Word of God.
Hornet.-References, Deut. 7:20; Ex. 23:28, etc. This is amongst the largest and certainly the most dangerous of insects when irritated. Their sting is most painful, and, as they swarm in large numbers, occasionally attacking man and beast, madness and death often ensue. They are, in the earlier stages of Israel's history spoken of as the instruments of Divine judgment upon the Canaanites.
Horse.-References, Deut. 17:16; Zech. 1:8, etc. This useful animal was not used as a beast of burden or applied to agricultural purposes as with us. The Jews were forbidden to multiply them (Deut. 17:16) as calculated to withdraw the heart from Jehovah. Egypt was famous for its cavalry, and in Scripture the "horse" is regarded as the symbol of war, the ass of peace. The Scripture references to the qualities of the horse are very numerous.
Kid.-References, Gen. 27:9; Num. 7:87, etc. The kid or young of the goat was greatly prized as a luxury at table, and is so still. The flesh being fine and tender made the kid a peculiarly desirable article of food amongst all Orientals, and in honor of special guests it was customary to select from the flock a well-favored kid for dinner. It was also used as a sin-offering.
Kite.-Reference, Lev. 11:14. This rapacious and unclean bird cannot with certainty be identified, but as the same Hebrew word is translated "vulture" in Job 28:7, and its keen sight referred to, it no doubt refers to a species of the sharp-sighted vulture.
Lamb.-References, Ex. 12:5; Lev. 23:19, etc. A lamb, according to Scripture, might be either the young of the sheep or goats. It was the paschal offering (Ex. 12); daily sacrifice—morning and evening (Ex. 29:38,39); weekly sacrifice (Num. 28:9; monthly sacrifices (Num. 28 ix); yearly sacrifices (Lev. 23, etc.); also offered on special occasions.
Lapwing.-References, Lev. 11:19; Deut. 14:18. This was another of the unclean, therefore prohibited birds. From the translation of the word it is now generally regarded as the "hoopoe." This fine bird has a beautiful crest and commands attention from its singular appearance and peculiar gestures. It is a common enough bird both in the eastern and western hemispheres.
Leopard.-References, Isa. 11:6; Dan. 7:6, etc. This animal was at one time common enough in Palestine but it is now rarely to be met with. It is an apt symbol of the conquests of Alexander the Great (Dan. 7), in the celerity of his movements and sudden and unexpected nature of his attacks. The cat-like cunning of this animal in watching for its prey, its swiftness and cruelty, are finely depicted in the Prophets. The skin of this beautiful animal is highly prized and is the emblem of royalty in Africa till this day.
Leviathan.-References, Job 41:1; Psa. 74:14, etc. The graphic description of this huge amphibious animal in the book of Job leaves no doubt that the crocodile is meant. It inhabits chiefly the rivers and banks of Africa, especially of the Nile, but has been found in the "Nhar Zurka," a river flowing through Samaria. The cruelty, strength, and other characteristics of this dreadful creature affords the Psalmist and the Prophets frequent illustrations in speaking of the great powers of Egypt, Assyria, etc.
Lice.-Reference, Ex. 8:16. This insect is only mentioned as amongst the plagues on Egypt. In a warm country and to a cleanly people like the Egyptians this third infliction of Divine judgment must have caused them exquisite pain and distress.
Lion.-References, Gen. 49:9; Psa. 22:21, etc. This well-known animal was anciently common enough in Palestine. Throughout Syria it is now extinct. No wild animal is so often mentioned in Scripture as the "lion," and its majesty, strength, courage, roar, and other features are frequently spoken of in the Word. Satan because of his ferocity, the Babylonian Empire because of its strength and grandeur, and Christ because of His majesty and royal power are each represented by the lion.
Lizard.-Reference, Lev. 11:30. This unclean reptile is only mentioned once in the Word of God. As there are many species of the lizard family abounding in the ruins and desolate places of the Holy Land the name is to be regarded here as a generic one, hence, all reptiles of the serpent kind were prohibited to Israel.
Locust.-References, Nah. 3:15; Joel 1:4, etc. The locust family is numerous and is a most frightful scourge in Eastern lands. They march in exact order and such are their numbers that no means or power known can arrest their devastating career. They turn in a few hours the most delightful and fruitful gardens into a desert. The locust is therefore a fitting emblem of Divine judgment.
Mole.-References, Isa. 2:20; Lev. 11:30. This unclean animal is different in size and in some other respects from the English mole. Burying grounds and desolate places are the habitations of the Palestinean animal, hence the appropriateness of the Isaiah passage.
Moth.-References, Luke, 12:33; Job 13:28, etc. The clothes' moth is the only one mentioned in Scripture and true to the derivation of the word it denotes the instability of man and the temporary tenure of all earthly possessions. This insect, especially in its larva state, is peculiarly destructive to clothing—a terrible trial in the East, where rich and very costly apparel are highly prized and carefully stored away.
Mouse.-References, Lev. 11:29; Isa.66:57, etc. Of the unclean animal known by this name there are several species. In these passages therefore the term is a generic one; but in 1 Sam. 6:5, the field mouse is referred to as being one of the most destructive animals to growing crops.
Mule.-References, 2 Sam. 13:29; Esther 8:10, etc. This domestic animal was the offspring of the horse and ass, but as the Israelites were not allowed to cross the breeds (Lev. 19:59), the mule was imported into the country and was ridden by kings and distinguished persons. The mule is a strong, stubborn, patient, hardy, sure-footed animal.
Ospray.-References, Lev. 11:13; Deut. 14:12. This unclean bird is termed by some "the fishing eagle." Its native element is the air, and yet it lives on fish, which it can see swimming on the surface of the water a long way off. Like the eagle to which it is closely allied it swoops down upon its prey and rarely fails in catching it.
Ossifrage.-References, Lev. 11:13; Deut. 14:12. This unclean bird is very large but not numerous. It inhabits the mountainous parts of Syria, and, like the eagle, swoops down upon its prey, seizing much larger animals than itself and instantly tearing them in pieces.
Ostrich.-References, Lev. 11:16; Job 39:13-18, etc. This immense bird although provided with wings cannot fly, but can out-run the fleetest horse. We need not a naturalist's description of this interesting bird as Job furnishes us with an accurate account. The cruelty of the ostrich in forsaking her young (Lam. 4:3), the beauty of her plumage, her mournful cry, her swiftness of flight and other features are employed in the illustration of moral truth and lessons to us. In several instances where "owl" is in the text as in Isa. 13:21, Lev. 11:16, the margin rightly reads "ostrich."
Owl.-References, Lev. 11:16; Isa. 34:54, etc. What particular bird is referred to cannot with certainty be determined. That it was an unclean bird uttering a peculiar screech is evident from the passages where the word occurs but in several instances "ostrich" should be substituted.
Ox.-References, Isa. 1:3; Job 1:3, etc. This well-known agricultural animal was one exceedingly strong and used for sacrifice, for draft work, and for food. The ox constituted an important part of Eastern wealth.
Palmer-worm.-References, Joel 1:4; Amos 4:9. This terribly destructive insect is much dreaded in the East. It is one of the locust species, but in its larva state, when it is fully as destructive to vegetation as when full winged. The locust in the various stages of its existence commits the most frightful ravages upon some of the fairest portions of the earth.
Partridge. -References, Jer. 17:11; 1 Sam. 26:20. The habit of this bird in laying her eggs on the ground and her attempts to hatch them there is noticed by the Prophet Jeremiah. Thousands of eggs are thus procured and the bird itself is easily caught; that too, and the manner of doing it, are noted in 1 Sam. 26:20, etc.
Peacock.-References, I King 10:22; 2 Chron. 9:21. This beautiful bird was imported into Palestine from India every three years by the ships of Solomon. On the same occasions apes were brought to the king for their playful antics, as the peacocks were for their rare beauty.
Pelican.-References, Lev. 11:18; Psa. 102:6, etc. This well-known bird was unclean under the law and its flesh forbidden as food. It is generally associated with solitary birds who frequent ruins and desolate places far removed from the haunts of man. Its love of solitude is referred to in Psa. 102:6. In two instances where cormorant is in the text, read pelican-Zeph. 2:14; Isa. 34:11.
Pygarg.-Reference, Deut. 14:5. This clean animal is of the antelope species. Some have identified the "pygarg" with the beautiful antelope known as the "addox," an inhabitant of Northern Africa, and from the derivation of the Hebrew word it may be so. The margin reads bison, which is incorrect.
Quail.-References, Ex. 16:11-13; Num. 11:31, 32, etc. This bird is several times mentioned in the Old Testament, but always in reference to the miraculous supply afforded to the Israelites on two separate occasions. The flesh of the "quail" is greatly prized in Syria and many thousands of them are annually sold in the Jewish markets. They always fly in the direction of the wind and in flocks so numerous as to darken the sky, and as their wings are short and not strong, they are easily exhausted, and in their yearly return across the Arabian desert thousands of them are captured and are prepared for food just as Israel did in the wilderness.
Ram.-References, Ex. 29:26; Gen. 15:9, etc. This clean animal was largely used in sacrifice. It was the consecration animal (Ex. 29 and Lev. 8). Its horns were formed into trumpets (Josh. 6), and its skin dyed red served as a covering for the tabernacle (Ex. 25:5), etc.
Raven.-References, Gen. 8:7; Job 38:41, etc. This unclean bird is well known. The various characteristics ascribed to it and its general habits are true to the letter. God's care in using this bird of prey to supply His servant and prophet Elijah with food (1 Kings 17:6), and the Divine care in feeding even these most unclean of birds (Luke 12:24), are beautifully illustrative of God's goodness towards and over all His creatures.
Roe.-References, Sol. 2:7; Deut. 12:15. This clean animal, whose flesh was ever a delicacy, is one of the most beautiful of horned animals. The roebuck or gazelle, for they are identical, is still found in Palestine, and the sacred writers frequently refer to the beauty, swiftness, elegance, and other traits of this species of deer.
Scorpion.-References, Deut. 8:15; Luke 11:12. This reptile is very common in the East and wary travelers are careful where they sit as scorpions are found under loose stones, in ruins, etc., and when disturbed sting sharply and severely. They are lobster-like in appearance, and their poison is secreted in their tails, which they strike with. Excruciating pain is the result, and oftentimes death, hence the allusion in Rev. 9:5,10.
Serpents.-References, Prov. 30:19; Gen. 3, etc. The serpent is the chosen symbol of subtlety and guile. There are so many kinds of serpents that to enumerate them here would be apart from our object. Fully 600 species are known to naturalists.
Sheep.-References, Isa. 53:7: John 10, etc. The first occupation mentioned in Scripture is that of shepherd and the first animal the sheep. There is no animal so frequently spoken of in the Bible, and none which is so full in illustrating God's gracious care, and generally of moral character. For sacrifice, for food, and as wealth the sheep occupies the principal place amongst animals in Scripture, and this is not to be wondered at, for Palestine is preeminently a pastoral country. The occupation of shepherd was anciently an honored and highly respected one; the King of Moab tended his own sheep, so does Jehovah (Psa. 23), and so does our blessed Lord (1 Peter 5:4).
Snail.-References, Lev. 11:30; Psa. 58:8. These are the only places where the word occurs. In the one passage it is classed amongst the unclean and in the other the nasty slimy trail of this slow-going creature is referred to.
Sparrow.-References, Psa. 84:3; Matt. 10:29, etc. This is the most common small bird of any known and as there are upwards of 100 different kinds in Palestine alone it is believed that as a rule the word must be taken as meaning small birds in general. They are the commonest of God's creatures, yet objects of Divine care and regard.
Spider.-References, Job 8:14; Pro. 30:28. The plans and devices of the wicked are compared to the spider's web (Isa. 59:5). This ingenious little insect weaves its web with consummate skill, which is all the more remarkable considering its fragile character.
Stork.-References, Jer. 8:7; Zech. 5:9, etc. This large bird was forbidden to the Jews as food. There are two kinds, black and white, both abounding in Palestine. The regularity of her return to her old haunts, and the etymological signification of the word-implying tenderness and filial affection—has caused this well-known bird to be warmly welcomed, and in some countries actually protected by the law. It is also a useful sanitary bird.
Swallow.-References, Psa. 84:3; Prov. 26:2, etc. It is difficult to particularly identify the smaller birds which are much more plentiful in Palestine than with us. No doubt a group of small migratory birds is here intended, birds almost ever on the wing moreover. As the sparrow is the most common of birds, the swallow is the most restless.
Swan.-References, Lev. 11:18; Deut. 14:16. This beautiful aquatic bird was ranked among the unclean birds. It little matters whether the modern swan is the one meant in the passage as undoubtedly a water bird is referred to.
Swine.-References, Deut. 14:8; Isa. 65:4, etc. This most filthy and unclean of all animals was an abhorrence to the Jews. Christ upheld the majesty of the law by granting permission to the expelled demons to enter the herd of swine and destroy them, for these animals ought not to have been kept within the territory of Palestine. A swine herd is a degrading employment (Luke 15:15), and the filthy habits of the sow are made to illustrate a deeply important truth in 2 Peter 2:22.
Tortoise.-Reference, Lev. 11:29. The amphibious animal known as the tortoise is common in Palestine, and its flesh and eggs are equally sought after for food. It is generally understood that some species of " lizard " is meant in the passage in Leviticus.
Unicorn.-References, Psa. 22:21; Isa. 34:7, etc. There are at least seven distinct passages where this animal is named, and it seems to us throwing contempt upon the sacred pages to assert that, because the unicorn cannot now be identified with any existing species, therefore it was a fabulous creature. Not so; it was an animal well-known in early times, at least to Israel. This two-horned creature is noted for its size, strength, ferocity, and untamableness, for which see the several passages.
Vulture.-References, Lev. 11:14; Deut. 14:13, etc. There are several species comprehended under the common name "vulture," all unclean under the Levitical law. This bird of prey feeds upon the carcass of man or beast, and frequently follows a victorious army in its march, pouncing upon the unburied slain. "There is a path which the vulture's eye hash not seen" (Job 28:7). The sharp, keen vision of this rapacious bird is several times alluded to in the Scriptures.
Weasel.-Reference, Lev. 11:29. Only once named in Scripture, and then as amongst the prohibited animals. The common weasel is abundant in Palestine.
Whale.-References, Job 7:12; Matt. 12:40, etc. The Hebrew word does not necessarily mean only the sea monster known as the whale, but the largest size of marine animals.
Wolf.-References, Gen. 49:27; John 10:12, etc. This well-known wild beast is still met with in Palestine. The dangerous and bloodthirsty character of the wolf, ravening during the night in packs is several times alluded to in Scripture. The wolf is also the terror of the shepherd keeping lonely watch over his flock. Oppressors and devourers of God's people, whether of Israel or the Church, are compared to wolves.
Worm.-References, Isa. 66:24; Acts 12:23, etc. There are many kinds of worms, some bred by putrid matter, as exampled in the awful end of Herod. The "worm" is the figure of endless anguish (Mark 9); it is also the figure of abject contempt and utter humiliation, as in the Psalms and book of Job.