Value of the Goat—Its use in furnishing food—The male kid the usual animal of slaughter— Excellence of the flesh and deception of Isaac—Milk of the Goat An Oriental milking scene —The hair of the goat, and the uses to which it is put—The Goat's skin used for leather—The "bottle" of Scripture— Mode of making and repairing the bottles—Ruse of the Gibeonites—The "bottle in the smoke"—The sacks and the kneading troughs—The Goat as used for sacrifice—General habits of the Goat—Separation of the Goats from the sheep—Performing Goats—Different breeds of Goats in Palestine.
WHETHER considered in reference to food, to clothing, or to sacrifice, the GOAT was scarcely a less important animal than the sheep. It was especially valuable in such a country as Palestina, in which the soil and the climate vary so much according to the locality. Upon the large fertile plains the sheep are breó in vast flocks, the rich and succulent grass being exactly to their toste; while in the hilly and craggy districts the Goats abound, and delight in browsing upon the scanty herbage that grows upon the mountain-side.
For food the Goat was even more extensively used than the sheep. The adult male was, of course, not eaten, being very tough, and having an odor which would repel any but an actually starving man. Neither were the females generally eaten, as they were needed for the future increase of the flocks. The young male kid formed the principal material of a feast, and as soon as a stranger claimed the hospitality of a man in good circumstances, the first thing that was done was to take a young male kid and dress it for him.
For example, when the angel visited Gideon m the guise of a stranger, Gideon “went in and made ready a kid, and unleavened cakes of an ephah of flour," and brought them to his guest (Judg. 6:1919And Gideon went in, and made ready a kid, and unleavened cakes of an ephah of flour: the flesh he put in a basket, and he put the broth in a pot, and brought it out unto him under the oak, and presented it. (Judges 6:19)). And when Isaac was on his death-bed, and asked Esau to take his bow and arrows and hunt for “venison," which was probably the flesh of one of the antelopes which have already been mentioned, a ready substitute, was found in the two kids, from whose flesh Rebekah made the disk for which he longed. The imposition might easily pass without detection, because the flesh of the kid is peculiarly tender, and can scarcely be distinguished from lamb, even when simply roasted. Isaac, therefore, with his senses dulled by his great age, was the less likely to discover the imposture, when the flesh of the kids was stewed into "savory meat such as he loved.”
A curious illustration of the prevalence of kid's flesh as food is given in the parable of the prodigal son, for whom his father had killed the fatted calf. "And he answering said to his father, Lo, these many years do I serve thee, neither transgressed I at any time thy commandment: and yet thou never gavest me a kid, that I might make merry with my friends" (Luke 15:2929And he answering said to his father, Lo, these many years do I serve thee, neither transgressed I at any time thy commandment: and yet thou never gavest me a kid, that I might make merry with my friends: (Luke 15:29)). The force of the reproof cannot be properly understood unless we are acquainted with the customs of the East. The kid was the least valuable animal that could have been given, less valuable than a lamb, and infinitely inferior to the fatted calf, which was kept in wealthy households for some feast of more than ordinary magnificence.
The kid was cooked exactly in the same manner as the sheep, namely, by cutting to pieces and stewing in a caldron, the meat and broth being served separately. See, for example, the case of Gideon, to whom a reference has already been made. When he brought the banquet to his guest, “the flesh he put in a basket, and he put the broth in a pot, and brought it out unto him under the oak, and presented it. And the angel of God said unto him, Take the flesh and the unleavened cakes, and lay them upon this rock, and pour out the broth.”
The same custom exists at the present day. When an Arab chief receives a guest, a kid is immediately killed and given to the women to be cooked in a separate tent, and the guest is pressed to stay until it is ready, in the very words used by Gideon three thousand years ago. “Depart not hence, I pray thee, until 1 come unto thee, and bring forth my present, and set it before thee."And the angelic guest answered him just as a modern Arab traveler would answer his host, “I will tarry until thou come again." For the refusal of proffered hospitality would be, and still is considered to be, either a studied insult, or a proof of bad manners, and no one with any claims to breeding would commit such an action without urgent cause and much apology.
Like the sheep, the Goat is extremely valuable as a milk producer, and at the present day the milk of the Goat is used as largely as that of the sheep. “At Rasheiya, under Mount Hermon," writes Mr. Tristram, “we saw some hundreds of goats gathering for the night in the wide open market-place beneath the castle. It was no easy matter to thread our way among them, as they had no idea of moving for such belated intruders on their rest. All the she-goats of the neighboring hills are driven in every evening, and remain for their morning's ranking, after which they set forth on their day's excursion.
“Each house possesses several, and all know their owners. The evening milking is a picturesque scene. Every street and open space is filled with the goats; and women, boys, and girls are everywhere milking with their small pewter pots, while the goats are anxiously awaiting their turn, or lying down to chew the cud as soon as it is over. As no kids or he-goats are admitted, the scene is very orderly, and there is none of the deafening bleating which usually characterizes largo flocks.
“These mountain goats are a solemn set, and by the gravity of their demeanor excite a suspicion that they have had no Youth, and never were kids. They need no herdsman to bring them borne in the evening, for, fully sensible of the danger of remaining unprotected, they hurry homewards of their own accord as soon as the sun begins to decline.”
LIKE the wool of the sheep, the hair of the Goat is used for the manufacture of clothing; and, as is the case with wool, its quality differs according to the particular breed of the animal, which assumes almost as many varieties as the sheep or the dog. The hair of some varieties is thick and rough, and can only be made into coarse cloths, while others, of which the mohair Goat and Cashmere Goat are familiar examples, furnish a staple of surpassing delicacy and fineness. It is most likely that the covering and curtains of the Tabernacle mentioned in Ex. 26 were of the latter kind, as otherwise they would have been Gut of Character with the fine linen, and blue and scarlet, their gulden clasps, and the profuse magnificence which distinguished every part of the sacred building. Moreover, the hair of the Goat is classed among the costly offerings which were made when the Tabernacle was built. " And they carne forth, men and women, as many as were willing hearted, and brought bracelets, and earrings, and rings, and tablets, all jewels of gold: and every man that offered offered an offering of gold unto the Lord. And every man, with whom was found blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine linen, and goats' hair, and red skins of rams, and badgers' skins, brought them “to be used in the structure of that wonderful building, in which nothing might be used except the finest and costliest that could be procured.
One of the principal uses to which the goat-skin was applied was the manufacture of leather, for which purpose it is still used, and is considered far better than that of the sheep. Perhaps the most common form in which this leather is used is the well-known water-vessel, or “bottle “of the Bible.
These so-called bottles are made from the entire skin of the animal, which is prepared in slightly different methods according to the locality in which the manufacture is carried on. In Palestine they are soaked for some little time in the tanning mixture, and are then filled with water, after the seams have been pitched. In this state they are kept for some time, and are kept exposed to the sun, covered entirely with the tanning fluid, and filled up with water to supply the loss caused by evaporation and leakage.
The hair is allowed to remain on the skins, because it acts as a preservative against the rough usage to which they are subject at the hard hands of the water-carriers. By degrees the hairy covering wears off, first in patches, and then over the entire surface, so that a new bottle can be recognized at a glance, and anyone who wished to sell an old bottle at the price of a new one would be at once detected.
Vessels made in this rude manner are absolutely necessary in the countries wherein they are used. Wooden or metal vessels would be too heavy, and, besides, the slight though constant evaporation that always takes place through the pores of the leather keeps down the temperature of the water, even under a Burning sun, the slight loss which is caused by the porousness of the skin being more than counterbalanced by the coolness of the water. It is true that the goat-skin communicates to the liquid a flavor far from pleasant, but in those countries the quality of the water is of little consequence, provided that it is plentiful in quantity, and tolerably cool.
Even in our own country, leathern drinking-cups are sometimes used, and all who have taken any interest in antiquarian manners are familiar with the "leather bottle” and the" black-jack," the former only surviving in museums and as signs to public houses, though the latter has within the memory of the present generation been in common use. Leathern bottles are still used in the Turkish army, and I have in my collection one of these water-bottles, which is practically the same article as the “bottle" of Scripture, though it is of comparatively small size, and is made with some attempt at elegance of form.
In all parts of the world where the skin is used for this purpose the mode of manufacture is practically identical. An account of the art of preparing the goat-skin as practiced in Abyssinia is given by Mr. C. Johnston, in his "Travels in Southern Abyssinia:"—
“To be of any value it must be taken off uncut, except around the neck, and in those situations necessary to enable the butchers to draw the legs out of the skin; also, of course, where the first incision is made to commence the process, and which is a circular cut carried around both haunches, not many inches from and having the tail for a center. The hide is then stripped over the thighs, and two smaller incisions being made round the middle joint of the hind-legs enable them to be drawn out.
“A stick is now placed to extend these extremities, and by this, for the convenience of the operators, the whole carcass is suspended from the branch of a tree, and, by some easy pulls around the body, the skin is gradually withdrawn over the forelegs, which are incised around the knees, to admit of their being taken out; after which, the head being removed, the whole business concludes by the skin being pulled inside out over the decollated neck. One of the parties now takes a rough stone and well rubs the inside surface, to divest it of a few fibers of the subcutaneous muscle which are inserted into the skin, and after this operation it is laid aside until the next day; the more interesting business of attending to the meat calling for immediate attention.
These entire skins are afterwards made into sacks by the apertures around the neck and legs being secured by a double fold of the skin being sewed upon each other, by means of a slender but very tough thong. These small seams are rendered quite air-tight, and the larger orifice around the haunches being gathered together by the hands, the yet raw skin is distended with air; and the orifice being then tied up, the swollen bag is left in that state for a few days, until slight putrefaction has commenced, when the application of the rough stone soon divests its surface of the hair. After this has been effected, a deal of labor, during at least one day, is required to soften the distended skin by beating it with heavy sticks, or trampling upon it for hours together, the laborer supporting himself by clinging to the bough of a tree overhead, or holding on by the wall of the house.
“In this manner, whilst the skin is drying, it is prevented from getting stiff, and, still further to secure it from this evil condition, it is frequently rubbed with small quantities of butter. When it is supposed that there is no chance of the skin becoming hand and easily broker, the orifice is opened, the air escapes, and a very soft, flaccid leather bag is produced, but which, for several days after, affords an amusement to the owner, when otherwise unemployed, by well rubbing it all over with his hands..”
The reader will see that the two processes are practically identical, the chief difference being that in one country the skins are distended with water and in the other with air.
As these bottles are rather apt to be damaged by the thorns, branches, rocks, and similar objects with which they come in contact, and are much too valuable to be thrown away as useless, their owners have discovered methods of patching and repairing them, which enable them to be used for some time longer. Patches of considerable size are sometimes inserted, if the rent should be of importance, while the wound caused by a thorn is mended by a simple and efficacious expedient. The skin is first emptied, and a round flat piece of wood, or oven a stone of suitable shape, is put into it. The skin is then held with the wounded part downwards, and the stone shaken about until it comes exactly upon the hole. It is then grasped, the still wet hide gathered tightly under it, so as to pucker up the skin, and is tied firmly round it. Perhaps some of my readers may have practiced the same method of mending a punctured football.
Allusion to this mode of mending the skin bottles is made in Josh. 9:4,134They did work wilily, and went and made as if they had been ambassadors, and took old sacks upon their asses, and wine bottles, old, and rent, and bound up; (Joshua 9:4)
13And these bottles of wine, which we filled, were new; and, behold, they be rent: and these our garments and our shoes are become old by reason of the very long journey. (Joshua 9:13). The Gibeonites "did work wilily, and vent and, made as if they had been ambassadors, and took old sacks upon their asses, and wine bottles, old, and rent, and bound up... and said... these bottles of wine, which we filled, were new; and, behold, they be rent.”
If these skin bottles be allowed to become dry, as is some-times the case when they are hung up in the smoky tents, they shrivel up, and become rotten and weak, and are no longer enabled to bear the pressure caused by the fermentation of new wine. So, in Psa. 119:81-8381CAPH. My soul fainteth for thy salvation: but I hope in thy word. 82Mine eyes fail for thy word, saying, When wilt thou comfort me? 83For I am become like a bottle in the smoke; yet do I not forget thy statutes. (Psalm 119:81‑83): " My soul fainteth for Thy salvation: but I hope in Thy word.
“Mine eyes fail for Thy word, saying, When wilt Thou comfort me?
“For I am become like a bottle in the smoke; yet do I not forget Thy statutes.”
How forcible does not this image become, when we realize the early life of the shepherd poet, his dwelling in tents wherein are no windows nor chimneys, and in which the smoke rolls to and fro until it settles in the form of soot upon the leathern bottles and other rude articles of furniture that are hung from the poles!
In the New Testament there is a well-known allusion to the weakness of old bottles: "Neither do men put new wine into old bottles, or the bottles break and the wine runneth out, and the bottles perish; but they put new vine into new bottles, and both are preserved." It would be impossible to understand the meaning of this passage unless we knew that the “bottles " in question were not vessels of glass or earthenware, but merely the partly-tanned skins of goats.
Another allusion to the use of the goat-skin is made in that part of the Book of Joshua which has already been mentioned. If the reader will refer to Josh. 9:44They did work wilily, and went and made as if they had been ambassadors, and took old sacks upon their asses, and wine bottles, old, and rent, and bound up; (Joshua 9:4), he will see that the Gibeonites took with them not only old bottles, but old sacks. Now, these sacks bore no resemblance to the hempen bags with which we are so familiar, but were nothing more than the same goat-skins that were employed in the manufacture of bottles, but with the opening at the neck left open. They were, in fact, skin-bottles for holding solids instead of liquids. The socks which Joseph's brethren took with them, and in the mouths of which they found their money, were simply goat-skin bags, made as described.
Yet another use for the goat-skin. It is almost certain that the "kneading-troughs" of the ancient Israelites were simply circular pieces of goat-skin, which could be laid on the ground when wanted, and rolled up and carried away when out of' use. Thus, the fact that "the people took their dough before was leavened, their kneading-troughs being bound up in their clothing upon their shoulders," need cause no surprise.
Nothing could be more in accordance with probability. The women were all hard at work, preparing the bread for the expected journey, when the terrified Pharaoh "called for Moses and Aaron by night, and said, Rise up, and get you forth from among my people, both ye and the children of Israel, and go, serve the Lord, as ye have said.... And the Egyptians were urgent upon the people that they might send them out of the land in haste; for they said, We be all dead men.”
So the women, being disturbed at their work, and being driven out of the country before they had leavened, much less baked, their bread, had no alternative but to roll up the dough in the leathern kneading-troughs, "tie them up in a bundle with their spare clothing, and carry them on their shoulders; whereas, if we connect the kneading-troughs with the large heavy wooden implements used in this country, we shall form an entirely erroneous idea of the proceeding. As soon as they come to their first halting-place at Succoth, they took the leathern kneading troughs out of their clothes, unrolled them, took the dough which had not even been leavened, so unexpectedly had the order for march in arrived, made it into fiat cakes, and baked them as they best could. The same kind of “kneading-trough" is still in use in many parts of the world.
Stone as well as earthenware jars were also used by the inhabitants of ancient Palestine; but they were only employed for the storage of wine in houses, whereas the bottles that were used in carrying wine from one place to another were invariably made of leather. Water also was stored in stone or earthenware jars. See, for example, John 2:66And there were set there six waterpots of stone, after the manner of the purifying of the Jews, containing two or three firkins apiece. (John 2:6): "And there were set there six waterpots of stone, after the manner of the purifying of the Jews, containing two or three firkins apiece." Whereas, when it was carried about, it was poured into bottles made of skin. Such was probably the “bottle of water" that Abraham put on Hagar's shoulder, when she was driven away by the jealousy of Sarah. Such was the “bottle of wine” that Hannah brought as her offering when she dedicated Samuel to the service of God; and such was the “bottle of milk " that Jael opened for Sisera when he carne to her tent. Even oil is carried in these bottles, which are certainly better adapted to the backs of mules, which are the usual beasts of burden, than they would be if they were made of glass or earthenware.
The Rabbinical writers have much to say upon the Goat; but as the greater part of their observations and directions are without any general interest, only a few will be selected from them.
Knowing the great strength of the Goat of their own days, they exaggerate the power of those which belonged to the ancients. Job's he-goats, for example, are said to have been so strong and fierce that they could conquer wolves, while some were so powerful that they carried bears upon their horns. They also were accustomed to climb rocks, dig up roots; and bring them down in their mouths.
The milk of the white Goat is useful medicinally for affections of the lungs, and the spleen of a female kid for diseases of the spleen. But if Goats are allowed to drink of the water in which blacksmiths cool their iron, the spleen gradually withers away, and at last disappears altogether. If the owner should desire to fatten a she-goat, he ought to tie up the udders so tightly that the milk cannot come into them, and the nourishment is therefore converted into fat instead of milk. Also, he should take care to keep his Goats away from the place where bread is being made, as they are very fond of the unbaked dough, and always die if they eat it.
IN sacrifices, the Goat was in nearly as much requisition the lamb, and in one—namely, that which was celebrated on the Great Day of Atonement—the Goat was specially mentioned as the only animal which could be sacrificed. The reader will, perhaps, remember that for this peculiar sacrifice two Goats were required, on which two lots were cast, one for the Lord, i.e. with the word "Jehovah" upon it, and the other for the scapegoat i. e. inscribed with the word "Azazel." The latter term is derived from two Hebrew words, the former being “Az," which is the general name for the Goat, and the second "azel," signifying “he departed." The former, which belonged to Jehovah, was sacrificed, and its blood sprinkled upon the mercy-seat and the altar of incense; and the Goat Azazel was led away into the wilderness, bearing upon its head the sins of the people, and there let loose.
THESE being the uses of the Goat, it may naturally be imagined that the animal is one of extreme importance, and that it is watched as carefully by its owners as the sheep. Indeed, both sheep and Goats belong to the same master, and are tended by the same shepherd, who exercises the same sway over them that he does over the sheep.
They are, however, erratic animals, and, although they will follow the shepherd wherever he may lead them, they will not mix with the sheep. The latter will walk in a compact flock along the valley, the shepherd leading the way, and the sheep following him, led in their turn by the sound of the bell tied round the neck of the master-ram of the flock. The Goats, however, will not submit to walk in so quiet a manner, but prefer to climb along the sides of the rocks that skirt the valleys, skipping and jumping as they go, and seeming to take delight in getting themselves into dangerous places, where a man could not venture to set his foot.
In the evening, when the shepherds call their flocks to repose, they often make use of the caverns which exist at some height in the precipitous side of the hills, as being safe strongholds, where the jackal and the hyena will not venture to attack them. When such is the case, the shepherds take their station by the mouth of the cave, and assist the sheep as they come sedately up the narrow path that leads to the cavern. The Goats, however, need no assistance, but come scrambling along by paths where no foot but a Goat's could tread, mostly descending from a considerable height above the cave, and, as if in exultation at their superior agility, jumping over the backs of the sheep as they slowly file into the accustomed fold.
Friendly as they are, the Goats and sheep never mingle together. There may be large flocks of them feeding in the same pasturage, but the Goats always take the highest spots on which verdure grows, while the sheep graze quietly below. Goats are specially fond of the tender shoots of trees, which they find in plenty upon the mountain side; and, according to Mr. Tristram, by their continual browsing, they have extirpated many species of trees which were once common on the hills of Palestine, and which now can only be found in Lebanon on the east of the Jordan.
Even when folded together in the same enclosure, the Goats never mix with the sheep, but gather together by themselves, and they instinctively take the same order when assembled round the wells at mid-day.
This instinctive separation of the sheep and the goats naturally recalls to our minds the well-known saying of our Lord that "before Him shall be gathered all nations, and He shall separate them one from another, as a shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats: and He shall set the sheep on His right hand, and the goats on His left.”
The image thus used was one that was familiar to all the hearers, who were accustomed daily to see the herds of sheep and Goats under one shepherd, yet totally distinct from each other. At feeding-time the Goats will be browsing in long lines on the mountain sides, while the sheep are grazing in the plain or valley; at mid-day, when the flocks are gathered round the wells to await the rolling away of the stone that guards the water, the Goats assemble on one side and the sheep on the other. And at night, when they are all gathered into one fold by one shepherd, they are still separated from each other. The same image is employed by the prophet Ezekiel: “As for you, O my flock, thus said the Lord God, Behold I judge between cattle and cattle, between rams and the he-goats.'
Generally, the leading Goat was distinguished by a bell as well as the leading sheep, and in reference to this custom there was an old proverb, "If the shepherd takes the lead, he blinds the bell-goat," while another proverb is based upon the inferior docility of the animal—"If the shepherd be lame, the Goats will run away.”
Yet the Goat can be tamed very effectively, and can even be taught to perform many tricks. “We saw just below us, on the rudely-constructed parade,' a crowd of men and children, surrounding a fantastically-dressed man exhibiting a Goat, which had been tutored to perform some cunning trick. It stood with its four feet close together on the top of a very long pole, and allowed the man to lift it up and carry it round and round within the circle; then the Goat was perched on four sticks, and again carried about. A little band of music-pipes, drums, and tambourines-called together the people from all parts of the town to witness this performance.
“The Goat danced and balanced himself obediently and perfectly, in very unnatural-looking positions, as if thoroughly understanding the words and commands of his master. The men who watched the actions of the Goat looked as grave and serious as if they were attending a philosophical or scientific lecture." ("Domestic Life in Palestine," by Miss Rogers)
Another feat is a favorite with the proprietors of trained Goats. The man takes a stool and plants it carefully on the ground, so as to be perfectly level, and then orders the Goat to stand upon it. A piece of wood about six inches in length, and shaped something like a dice-box, is then placed on the stool, and the Goat manages to stand on it, oil his sharp, hard hoofs being pressed closely together on the tiny surface. The man then takes another piece of wood and holds it to the Goat's feet. The animal gently removes first one foot and then another, and, by careful shifting of the feet, enables its master to place the second piece of wood on the first. Successive additions are made, until at the last the Goat is perched on the topmost of some nine or ten pieces of wood balanced on each other, the whole looking like a stout reed marked off with joints.
The stately steps and bold bearing of the old he-goat is mentioned in the Proverbs: "There be three things which go well, yea, four are comely in going “A lion, which is strongest among beasts, and turneth not away for any; "A greyhound; an he-goat also; and a king, against whom there is no rising up." (Prov. 30:29-3129There be three things which go well, yea, four are comely in going: 30A lion which is strongest among beasts, and turneth not away for any; 31A greyhound; an he goat also; and a king, against whom there is no rising up. (Proverbs 30:29‑31).) The word which is here rendered as he-goat signifies literally the "Butter," and is given to the animal on account of the mode in which it uses its formidable horns. The word is not common in the Bible, but it is used even at the present day among the Arabs.
Several herds of goats exist in Palestine, the most valuable of which is the Mohair Goat, and the most common the Syrian Goat. There, however dissimilar they may be in appearance, are only varieties of the ordinary domestic animal, the former being produced artificially by carefully selecting those specimens for breeding which have the longest and finest hair. It was from the hair of this breed that the costly fabrics used in the Tabernacle were woven, and it is probably to this breed that reference is made in Solomon's Song, 4:1, 2: "Behold, thou art fair, my love; behold, thou art fair; thou hast doves' eyes within thy locks thy hair is as a flock of goats, that appear from Mount Gilead.
“Thy teeth are like a flock of sheep that are even shorn, which carne up from the washing." In this passage the careful reader will also note another reference to the habits of the Goats and sheep, the hair being compared to the dark-haired Goats that wander on the tops of the hills, while the teeth are compared to sheep that are ranged in regular order below. The Mohair Goat is known scientifically as Capra Angorensis. The same image is used again in chap. 6:5.
The second breed is that which is commonest throughout the country. It is known by the name of the Syrian Goat, and' is remarkable for the enormous length of its ears, which sometimes exceed a foot from root to tip. This variety has been described as a separate species under the name of Capra Mambrica, or C. Syriaca, but, like the Mohair Goat, and twenty-three other so-called species, is simply a variety of the common Goat, Hircus œgragus.
Reference is made to the long ears of the Syrian Goat in Amos 3:1212Thus saith the Lord; As the shepherd taketh out of the mouth of the lion two legs, or a piece of an ear; so shall the children of Israel be taken out that dwell in Samaria in the corner of a bed, and in Damascus in a couch. (Amos 3:12): "Thus saith the Lord: As the shepherd taketh out of the mouth of the lion two legs, or a piece of an ear; so shall the children of Israel be taken out that dwell in Samaria." Such a scene, which was familiar to Amos, the shepherd as well as the prophet, is represented in the illustration. In the foreground is the goat on which the Ron has sprung, and from which one of the long ears has been torn away. Its companions are gathering round it in sympathy, while its kid is trying to discover the cause of its mother's uneasiness. In the background is a group of armed shepherds, standing round the lion which they have just killed, while one of them is holding up the torn ear which he has taken out of the lion's mouth.