In 306 A.D., Constantine succeeded to the empire, sharing it at first with others. Later he marched against his rival Maxentius with a large army. It is alleged that at this point he had a vision of a shining cross inscribed with the words, “In this sign conquer.” He had a banner made with the sign of the cross upon it. His soldiers, enthused by the sight of the new standard, swept all before them. Constantine professed the Christian faith and became the imperial patron of Christianity. Heathen temples with their rich revenues were handed over to the Christians; images of Christ and the apostles replaced the statues of the emperors; the local gods disappeared; the Church became popular and enriched, but at what a cost spiritually!
Church and world now entered into a partnership from which only the world benefited, but benefited only in an outward way. Henceforth the Church — a worldly Church — became one of the features of the world. The cross of shame, which the world had meted out to the Son of God, who said, “I am not of the world” (John 17:1414I have given them thy word; and the world hath hated them, because they are not of the world, even as I am not of the world. (John 17:14)), now became a symbol of worldly glory. “In every highway, on the steep summits of the hills, in the deep ravines and remote valleys, on the roofs of houses, and in the mosaic of the floors was seen the cross.”
But if the Church had peace without, she was now to suffer from strife within. If the storms of persecuting violence on the part of successive emperors had failed to overthrow her, Satan would try other means. If he could not destroy her, he would corrupt her. If he had failed as a roaring lion to devour the flock of Christ, he would now transform himself into an angel of light in order to lead the sheep astray.
One of the tools he used was a certain Arius, an intelligent and cultured man, presbyter in the church at Alexandria. He began to cast doubts on the deity of Christ. Said he, “If the Father begat the Son, the begotten had a beginning of existence, hence it is evident there was a time when He was not.” These blasphemous views he sedulously taught in Alexandria. He asserted that the Lord was a creature — the greatest of creatures, but not equal to the Father. The error was quickly detected by faithful believers and strenuously opposed, but the controversy rent the Church. Constantine sought to reconcile the opposing parties. The unity of Christendom was of primary importance in his mind. The depth and reality of his conversion have often been disputed — he avoided Christian baptism until a little before his death.
To settle the question, he summoned a council of the bishops to meet at Nicea in Bithynia in the year 325 and defrayed the cost from the imperial treasury. Three hundred eighteen bishops attended, of whom twenty-two espoused the cause of Arius. Many presbyters were also present and the total attendance was about six hundred. A powerful defender of the faith came forward at that time in the person of Athanasius, a young man who was destined to spend his life largely in combating this heresy.
It is significant that Constantine was apparently quite unable to see the evil of the Arian doctrine, though the majority of the bishops present condemned it as blasphemy. As a result, the Nicene Creed was drawn up, in which the Lord’s deity was clearly asserted. Arius and his followers were banished and the circulation of their writings was made a capital offence. Athanasius became Bishop of Alexandria when only twenty-eight years of age and continued in that office some forty-six years in all, with intervening periods of persecution and banishment.
Constantine was, however, won over in time to favor the Arians and they were recalled. Athanasius was urged to receive them. The Arians sought to gain their ends by subtle phrases and dissimulation. They descended to worse measures: They accused Athanasius of various crimes which they were unable to prove. Once he was accused of murder, but the victim was produced in the court of inquiry alive and well. Another false accusation resulted in his banishment. Arius was about to enter Constantinople in triumph. The godly bishop of that city had been on his knees imploring God for deliverance, for he had been ordered to receive the heretic, which he could not conscientiously do. Suddenly, as he approached the city, Arius was overtaken by violent pain, was compelled to turn aside, and came to a sudden and tragic end.
Constantine died in 337. Some of his successors favored the Arian party and the conflict continued to rage in the Church. The faithful, now free from pagan persecution, began to suffer from the Arians, who scrupled not to use violence. The orthodox were content to use the spiritual arms of prayer and the teaching of the Word; the Arians employed intrigue, cultivated those in authority, and persecuted their brethren.
Another heresy, that of Sabellius, had also arisen. He taught that the Father, Son and Holy Spirit were but phases of the Deity and denied the personal distinction of each. But these rival heretics, while opposing one another, joined in opposing the orthodox. Constantius became sole ruler, and, favoring the Arians, a persecution arose which was almost as severe as that of some of the heathen emperors. These features of corruption and violence proved the true character of Arianism, while the reproach of Christ was found among those who held to the truth of Scripture, which clearly asserts the deity of Christ.
Athanasius was a voluminous writer, but the following paragraph epitomizes his teaching:
“The Father cannot be Son, nor the Son Father, and the Holy Ghost is never called by the name of Son but is called the Spirit of the Father and the Son. The Holy Trinity is but one divine nature, and one God with which a creature cannot be joined. This is sufficient for the faithful. Human knowledge goes no further; the cherubim veil the rest with their wings.”
The so-called Athanasian Creed was not the work of Athanasius, but the product of a later age.
In spite of all the conflict, the truth was cherished and passed on by that vast number of simple Christians whose names history does not record. We have an illustration of this in a simple incident at the council of Nicea. There were present certain non-Christian philosophers. One of these, prior to the immediate business of the council, engaged some in argument. An aged Christian of no special attainments answered his objections in these simple words:
“Hear, philosopher, in the name of Jesus Christ. There is one God, Maker of heaven and earth and of all things visible and invisible, who made all these things by the power of His Word and confirmed them by the holiness of His Spirit. This Word whom we call the Son of God, compassionating the sons of men involved in error and wickedness, chose to be born of a woman, to converse with men, and to die for them, and He will come again as the Judge of all things which men have done in the body. That these things are so we believe in simplicity. Do not therefore labor in vain investigating the manner in which these things may or may not be and seeking to confute things which ought to be received by faith, but if thou believest, answer me now that I ask thee.” It is said the philosopher answered, “I do believe,” and explained he was conscious of a change which he attributed to divine influence. The story is consistent with the Scripture. “God has chosen the weak things of the world, that He may put to shame the strong” (1 Corinthians 1:2727But God hath chosen the foolish things of the world to confound the wise; and God hath chosen the weak things of the world to confound the things which are mighty; (1 Corinthians 1:27) JND).
It was in this period that monasticism originated. Some were simple hermits seeking to escape from the confusion and temptations of the age. Others lived together in companies. New Testament teaching, if accepted in simplicity, would have delivered men from such excesses. Such a course appealed to those whose natures tended to religiousness or, whose consciences being deeply affected, sought such means of human perfection instead of seeing that God can only be served in the power of the Spirit. Anthony, who died in 356, may be regarded as the father of monasticism. While yet a youth, he carried out the Lord’s words to the rich young man to sell all he had and give to the poor. Then he retired to the desert. He pushed solitude to an extreme and became famous, and many imitated his example. He was doubtless a sincere, if misguided, Christian.
It is said that the gospel was taken to Abyssinia at this time. Though there had been believers there before, it is recorded that there was a great extension of the faith at that time in that isolated land. Christianity, however, had for some time been spreading beyond the confines of the Roman Empire. Indeed, it is recorded that by the second century it had been preached in every land known to the Romans. We have no reason to doubt that in spite of all the outward confusion, the work of the Holy Spirit was continuing and real material prepared for the kingdom of God. Human history takes note of the doings of the great, of wars and calamities, and of other matters of earthly importance, but the quiet, obscure lives of humble Christians provide no material for its pages unless, as in the days of persecution, they come under public notice. A terrible persecution raged in Persia at that period and believers once more proved the reality of their faith by suffering painful deaths.
After the death of Constantius, who had succeeded Constantine, Julian came to the throne. He was marked by a fanatical addiction to paganism and sought by every means in his power to reestablish the ancient gods of Rome. Altars were set up everywhere and heathen practices resumed. While he had seen the glaring inconsistencies in the lives of many public professors of Christianity, including the previous emperor, he knew enough of Christianity to recognize its virtues, and he strove to make his new paganism morally equal to it. His rules for the pagan priests were an imitation of the godly behavior of truly Christian pastors. “The impious Galileans,” he remarked, had by their singular benevolence strengthened their party, and paganism had suffered by want of attention to these things. He comments on the kindness of Christians to strangers, their care in burying the dead, and their gravity. The heathen priests were warned to avoid the theater and the tavern. Hospitals were to be erected in every city. “The Galileans,” he said, “relieve both their own poor and ours.” What a testimony to Christianity! “By their fruits ye shall know them,” says the Lord (Matt. 7:2020Wherefore by their fruits ye shall know them. (Matthew 7:20)).
We have thus the witness of a bitter enemy of the faith that, though decline had set in, Christian virtues were such a testimony to men that the Emperor’s pagan subjects were exhorted to copy them. But the gospel Julian would not have. He did everything his ingenious mind could devise to weaken and prevent the spread of the faith, although avoiding open violence. He admitted that the measures of the persecuting emperors had increased rather than lessened the number of believers. “Give them only occasion,” he said, “and they will crowd as fast to martyrdom as bees fly to their hives.”
The persecution, however, was very real. Sacrificing to the gods was made a condition of retaining any position of importance or influence. He deprived Christian scholars of classical learning, saying they did not need it; “to believe is sufficient for them.” He even went to the length of sprinkling the food in the markets with water consecrated to idols. He encouraged the enmity of the Jews and stirred up dissension among Christians. To bring to nought the Lord’s words, he gave orders for the temple at Jerusalem to be rebuilt, but it is said fire issued from the earth and drove the workmen away. The attempt failed. If Christians complained of injustice, he taunted them by reminding them of the Lord’s injunction to bear injuries patiently. But Julian’s reign was cut short. He was killed in battle in 363 A.D., having reigned only two years.
The attempt of the Emperor Julian to revive paganism did not survive his death. Succeeding emperors were favorable to the faith. Christianity became again the established religion. Its outward form was now the fashion of the world. Many in whose hearts there was no real conversion crowded into the Church. Pagan features crept in, and there was a tendency to encourage things which might make Christianity acceptable to the masses so recently freed from paganism. Days were set aside to commemorate the death of the martyrs. The veneration in which the martyrs were held ripened into idolatry. Miraculous powers were attributed to their relics, and these relics multiplied exceedingly. Pilgrimages were made to their tombs. Images abounded and ignorant proselytes from paganism could easily see in all this a likeness to their old religion. The churches began to take on something of the erstwhile splendor of the heathen shrines. Constantine himself had set the fashion by building, among others, the gorgeous church of the holy sepulchre.
Church government at this time was essentially local. Authority was vested in the local bishop, assisted by various orders of clergy. He was usually elected by the elders and the congregation, which often included a large proportion of the population of the town or city. Antioch, for example, had then a population of 200,000, of whom half were professing Christians. The congregation consisted of actual communicants and catechumens, the latter going through a course of instruction before baptism and admission into the church. The emperors meddled in religious affairs, but their authority was not generally recognized in doctrinal matters. Questions of more than local importance were settled by calling a synod, or conference of bishops. The power and influence of the bishop was thus very great, and if the post was held by a good man, he wielded an influence for good. The greater the city, the greater the prestige of the bishop. The bishops of the principal cities like Rome were called metropolitans, but popery had not yet developed.
The inspiration of the Scriptures and the doctrines set out in the Nicene Creed were generally held, except, of course, by the heretical sects, but the tares had grown up with the wheat and the moral state of Christendom was on a lower level than when the fires of persecution were burning and purging away the dross. In the midst of the confusion, God raised up men of ability to maintain the truth of the gospel and confute false teachers, though even these men were not free from the superstitions and false notions which characterized the Church in those days.
The Roman senate had long remained true to the pagan religion, but in 388 A.D. it decided officially in favor of Christianity. In 404 the gladiatorial combats were abolished by imperial decree, and though the circuses continued and wild beasts still fought each other in the arena, the greater respect for human life was undoubtedly an outcome of Christian influence on the public conscience. Paganism was now in its last throes and obstinate pagans even suffered some measure of persecution, though there is no evidence of men suffering martyrdom for the heathen gods.
In the east of Europe those warlike tribes who were later to overthrow the Roman Empire were increasing in numbers and power. They too had been evangelized and had adopted the Arian form of Christianity. Ulfilas, the famous bishop of the Gothic tribes, had taught them the Arian Creed, with this difference: While maintaining the deity of Christ, he held that the Father was greater than the Son. Ulfilas, in translating the Scriptures into Gothic, invented the Gothic alphabet based on the Greek with the addition of other symbols to represent their speech, for their language till then was unwritten.
The fifth century witnessed a further general decline in the public profession of Christianity. As the world crowded into the Church, it brought its own features into it, fulfilling those remarkable words of our Lord when He spoke of the leaven which a woman took and hid in three measures of meal until it had been all leavened (Matt. 13:3333Another parable spake he unto them; The kingdom of heaven is like unto leaven, which a woman took, and hid in three measures of meal, till the whole was leavened. (Matthew 13:33)). Thus it was with the Christian Church: Outward success was accompanied by inward decay.
Henceforth it was not possible to draw a clear distinction between the Church and the world, and succeeding centuries were to witness the growth of a great hierarchical system which now began to take root, which, while bearing the name of Christ, would be a denial of all that was truly Christian and which would stain its hands with the blood of His servants. Already, indeed, the fourth century had witnessed the first shedding of Christian blood under the auspices of the Church. We’ll notice more of this, however, when we consider the histories of some notable Christians of the fourth and fifth centuries in the next chapter.
Monasticism, celibacy, the recrudescence of pagan superstitions and idolatrous forms under Christian names, worship of the martyrs and their tombs, relics, a complicated religious paraphernalia which was the antithesis of the worship of God in Spirit and in truth, an increasingly corrupt clergy and an ignorant laity, the ever-increasing power of the principal bishops who now were almost princes: These seem to be the characteristics of the Church publicly at this time. Doubtless amid it all were those who sighed and cried over the departed glory, and here and there men like Jovinian, Vigilantius and Priscillian strove to raise the banner of truth, but they were vanquished by oppression or persecution.
This century saw Rome finally overthrown as the mistress of the world. In 409-410 Rome was sacked and pillaged by the Vandals. The eastern tribes were busy breaking up the empire elsewhere, and the Roman Empire in the West had virtually ceased to exist by the middle of the century. In 454 the invading Vandals found neither emperor nor army in Rome, but they were met by Leo the Bishop and seem to have been awed by the dignity and authority of the prelate and desisted from destroying the city. This is one of the turning points of history; the power of the Caesars was in time succeeded by the power of the popes, which gradually increased till they had ascendancy over princes and kings and emperors.