Census of Israel
Numbers 1:2, 45, 462Take ye the sum of all the congregation of the children of Israel, after their families, by the house of their fathers, with the number of their names, every male by their polls; (Numbers 1:2)
45So were all those that were numbered of the children of Israel, by the house of their fathers, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war in Israel; 46Even all they that were numbered were six hundred thousand and three thousand and five hundred and fifty. (Numbers 1:45‑46).—Take ye the sum of all the congregation of the children of Israel.... So all those that were numbered of the children of Israel, by the house of their fathers, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war in Israel—were six hundred thousand and three thousand and five hundred and fifty.
DR. JOHN KITTO, F. S. A.—The increase of the Hebrews, in 430 years, from 70 persons to 603,550 males and upwards, of twenty years of age, besides 22,000 males of a month old and upwards among the Levites, has appeared to many incredible. The number of 600,000 men capable of bearing arms necessarily makes the whole number of people amount to 2,400,000. An anonymous writer, in the Literarischen Auzeiger, has demonstrated that the Hebrews, in 430 years, might have increased from 70 persons to 977,280 males above twenty years old. He supposes that of those 70 persons who went down to Egypt, only 40 remained alive after a space of 20 years, each one of whom had two sons. In like manner, at the close of every succeeding period of 20 years, he supposes one-fourth part of those who were alive at the commencement of that period to have died, while the remaining three-fourths are doubled by Natural increase. Hence arises the following geometrical progression.
After twenty years, of the seventy there are forty living, each having two sons:
Fare in Egypt
HERODOTUS. —On the outside of the pyramid of Cheops were inscribed in Egyptian characters the various sums of money expended in the progress of the work, for the radishes, onions and garlic consumed by the artificers.—Herod., I. ii., 125.
PLINY.—Ulpicum, generally known to the Greeks as Cyprian garlic, holds a high rank among the dishes of the rule population, more particularly in Africa; it is of a larger size than ordinary garlic.—Nat. Hist., 1. xix., c. 34.
PROF. G. RAWLINSON, M. A.—Fish and vegetables formed the chief food of the lower classes; and among the vegetables especially affected, gourds, cucumbers, onions, and garlic are distinctly apparent. According to Herodotus, some tribes of the Egyptians lived entirely on fish, which abounded in the Nile, the canals, and the lakes, especially in the Birket-el-Keroun, or Lake Mœris. The monuments represent the catching, salting and eating of this, viand.—Hist. Illust. of the Old Test., p. 76.
Quails
Num. 11:3131And there went forth a wind from the Lord, and brought quails from the sea, and let them fall by the camp, as it were a day's journey on this side, and as it were a day's journey on the other side, round about the camp, and as it were two cubits high upon the face of the earth. (Numbers 11:31).—And there went forth a wind from the Lord, and brought quails from the sea, and let them fall by the camp, as it were a day's journey on this side, and as it were a day's journey on the other side, round about the camp, and as it were two cubits high upon the face of the earth.
PROF. H. B. TRISTRAM, LL. D., F. R. S.—The quail migrates in vast flocks, and regularly crosses the Arabian desert, flying for the most part at night; and when the birds settle they are so utterly exhausted that they may be captured in any numbers by the hand. Being birds of weak flight, notwithstanding their migratory habits, they instinctively select the shortest sea passages, and avail themselves of any island as a halting-place. Thus in spring and autumn they are slaughtered in numbers on Malta and many of the Greek islands, which they quit in a day or two, very few being seen until the period of migration comes round again. They also fly with the wind, never facing it, like many other birds. The period when they were brought to the camp of Israel was in spring, when on their northward migration from Africa. According to their well-known instinct, they would follow up the coast of the Red Sea till they came to its bifurcation, by the Sinaitic Peninsula, and then, with a favoring wind, would cross at the narrow part, resting near the shore before proceeding. Accordingly we read that the wind brought them up from the Sea, and that, keeping close to the ground, they fell, thick as rain, about the camp in the month of April, according to our calculation. Thus the miracle consisted in the supply being brought to the tents of Israel by the special guidance of the Lord, in exact harmony with the known habits of the bird. The Israelites "spread them" out, when they, had taken them, before they were sufficiently refreshed to escape, " round about the camp," to dry them and prepare them for food, exactly as Herodotus tells us the Egyptians were in the habit of doing with quails, drying them in the sun. (II. 77.) Again it was at even that they began to arrive, and by the morning the whole flock had settled. Thus throughout the Mediterranean the quails, arrive at night, as the wood-cocks do on our own east coast, in a similar state of exhaustion. I have myself found the ground in Algeria, in the month of April, covered with quails for an extent of many acres at daybreak, where on the preceding afternoon there had not been one. They were so fatigued that they scarcely moved till almost trodden upon; and, although hundreds were slaughtered, for two days they did not leave the district, till the wind veered, and they then as suddenly ventured northwards across the sea, leaving scarcely a straggler behind. The expression, "as it were two cubits high upon the face of the earth," probably refers to the height at which the quails fly above the ground. At all times their flight is very low, just skimming the surface of the ground, and especially when fatigued it keeps close, never towering, like the Partridge or Sand-Grouse.—Nat. Hist. of the Bible, p. 231, 232.
The Graves of Lust
PROF. E. H. PALMER, M. A.—Here at Ain Hudherah are the remains of a large encampment, differing essentially in their arrangement from any others which I have seen.... The remains extend for miles around... Just outside the camp were a number of stone heaps, which from their shape and position, could be nothing else but graves. The sight is a most commanding one, and admirably suited for the assembling of a large concourse of people. Arab tradition declares these curious remains to be " the relics of a large Pilgrim or Hajj caravan, who in remote ages pitched their tents at this spot on their way to Ain Hudherah, and who were soon afterward lost in the desert of the Tih;" For various reasons I am inclined to believe that this legend is authentic, that it refers to the Israelites, and that we have in the scattered stones of Erweis'el Ebeirig real traces of the Exodus. Hazeroth corresponds with "Ain Hudherah in the Semitic orthography of the name.... These considerations, the distance—exactly a day's journey—from Ain Hudherah, and those mysterious graves outside the camp, to my mind prove conclusively the identity of this spot with the scene of that awful plague by which the Lord punished the greed and discontent of His people; where "the wrath of the Lord was kindled against the people and the Lord smote the people with a very great plague. And he called the name of that place Kibroth-hattaavah, because there they buried the people that 'lusted."... The length of time which has elapsed since the events of the Exodus furnishes no argument against the probability of this conclusion, for there are other monuments in the country in even better preservation, and of it date indisputably far anterior.—Desert of the Exodus, p. 212-114.
Zoan
DR. JOHN KITTO.—The great antiquity of Zoan is attested in this text, which states that it Was built seven years after Hebron, which already existed' in the time of Abraham: and it incidentally evinces how well acquainted with Egypt the writer was, that this reference to the date of the foundation of an Egyptian city should have been introduced. The locality is now covered with mounds of unusual height and extent, full of the fragments of broken pottery which such sites usually exhibit. These mounds extend for about a mile from north to south, and occupy nearly the same breadth. The area in which stood the sacred enclosure of the temple is about 1,500 feet by 1,250, surrounded by the mounds of fallen houses. Though in a very ruinous condition, the fragments of walls, columns, a gateway, and fallen obelisks, sufficiently attest the importance of the building to which they belonged. The obelisks, twelve in. number, are all of the time of Rameses the Great (1355 B. C.); and the gateway also bears his name. More interest, however, attaches to the fact that the oval of Osirtasen III., who was king when Joseph died, has also been found, as this shows that the town must then have existed: it forms a valuable corroboration of the present text. The modern village of Zan (in which the ancient name of Zoan may be recognized) consists of a few huts, and a ruined kasr of modern date. —Pict. Bib. In loco.
Grapes of Eschol
STRABO.—Mauritania is said to produce a vine the girth of which two men can scarcely compass, and bearing bunches of grapes about a cubit in size—Strab., 1. xvii., c. 3.
DR. H. J. VAN-LENNEP.—The land of Judah is still celebrated for the size and excellence of its grapes, which, as a general rule, succeed best in similar hilly districts. There was situated the vale of Eschol, whence the spies sent by Moses procured the large cluster of grapes mentioned in Numbers; and it is affirmed that even now clusters of grapes are found in that locality weighing no less than twelve pounds; bunches weighing twenty pounds are often seen elsewhere. We ourselves have seen single grapes of the size of the largest damask plum, and have found clusters measuring eighteen inches in length. We have also counted more than seven hundred grapes on a single bunch.—Bible Lands, p. 112.
PROF. H. B. TRISTRAM, LL. D., F. R. S.—This Eschol, or Grape Valley, a little to the south of Hebron, is still clad with vines, and the grapes are the finest and largest in Palestine. Clusters weighing ten or twelve pounds have been gathered. The spies doubtless bore the cluster between them on a staff, that the splendid grapes might not be crushed. With care and judicious thinning, it is well known that bunches weighing nearly twenty pounds can be produced. Not only are the bunches remarkable for their weight, but the individual grape attains a size rarely reached elsewhere.—Nat. Hist, of the Bible, p. 404.
DR. JOHN KITTO, F. S. A.—Even in our own country (England) a bunch of grapes was produced at Welbeck, and sent as a present from the Duke of Rutland to the Marquis of Rockingham, which weighed nineteen pounds. It was conveyed to its destination—more than twenty miles distant—on a staff, by four laborers, two of whom bore it in rotation.—Physical History of Palestine, p. 330.
Aaron's Rod
SIR J. G. WILKINSON.—According to the monuments, the Egyptian nobles generally carried a staff from three to six feet long when they went out. One of them, preserved to our time, is of cherry wood; but it appears that those of acacia wood were generally preferred. Egyptian priests, and other persons of rank, are represented as walking with sticks. Frequently the name of the owner was written on his staff, instances of which may be seen on the monuments at Thebes.—Ancient Egypts., III., 386-8.
DR. W. M. THOMSON.—The Almond Tree hastens to bud and blossom long before any other has begun to wake out of the repose of winter, and before it has put forth its own leaves. In the instance of Aaron's rod the rapidity was certainly miraculous; but a rod was selected for the purpose from that tree which, in its natural development, is the most expeditious of all; and not only do the blossoms appear on it suddenly, but the fruit sets at once, and appears even while the flowers are yet on the tree—buds, blossoms, and almonds together on the same branch, as on this rod of Moses.—The Land and the Book, p. 495, 496
PROF. H. B. TRISTRAM, LL. D., F. R. S.—The Almond is the earliest of all the trees of Palestine to put forth its blossoms, which we gathered at Bethany in January; hence it Hebrew name Shaked, i. e., hasten. Aaron's rod, that miraculously budded, was of this tree. It is probably in commemoration of this event that the Jews to the present day carry boughs of Almond blossom to their synagogues on great festival days.—Nat. Hist. of Bible, p. 332.
Uncleanness from the Dead
Num. 19:11-2211He that toucheth the dead body of any man shall be unclean seven days. 12He shall purify himself with it on the third day, and on the seventh day he shall be clean: but if he purify not himself the third day, then the seventh day he shall not be clean. 13Whosoever toucheth the dead body of any man that is dead, and purifieth not himself, defileth the tabernacle of the Lord; and that soul shall be cut off from Israel: because the water of separation was not sprinkled upon him, he shall be unclean; his uncleanness is yet upon him. 14This is the law, when a man dieth in a tent: all that come into the tent, and all that is in the tent, shall be unclean seven days. 15And every open vessel, which hath no covering bound upon it, is unclean. 16And whosoever toucheth one that is slain with a sword in the open fields, or a dead body, or a bone of a man, or a grave, shall be unclean seven days. 17And for an unclean person they shall take of the ashes of the burnt heifer of purification for sin, and running water shall be put thereto in a vessel: 18And a clean person shall take hyssop, and dip it in the water, and sprinkle it upon the tent, and upon all the vessels, and upon the persons that were there, and upon him that touched a bone, or one slain, or one dead, or a grave: 19And the clean person shall sprinkle upon the unclean on the third day, and on the seventh day: and on the seventh day he shall purify himself, and wash his clothes, and bathe himself in water, and shall be clean at even. 20But the man that shall be unclean, and shall not purify himself, that soul shall be cut off from among the congregation, because he hath defiled the sanctuary of the Lord: the water of separation hath not been sprinkled upon him; he is unclean. 21And it shall be a perpetual statute unto them, that he that sprinkleth the water of separation shall wash his clothes; and he that toucheth the water of separation shall be unclean until even. 22And whatsoever the unclean person toucheth shall be unclean; and the soul that toucheth it shall be unclean until even. (Numbers 19:11‑22).—He that toucheth the dead body of any man shall be unclean seven days.. When a man dieth in a tent; all that come into the tent, and all that is in the tent, shall be unclean seven days.... And whosoever toucheth one that is slain with the sword in the open fields, or a bone of a man, or a grave, shall be unclean seven days.
DR. JOHN KITTO. —For these minute and careful regulations there were many reasons: (1.) They would tend to lessen the spread of any infectious disease of which the person may have died. (2.) They would, oblige the people to inter their dead soon, and not keep them embalmed in their houses for years, as did the Egyptians. (3.) They would ensure the timely burial of strangers. (4.) They would oblige them to bury all the slain, foes as well as friends, after a battle. (5.) They would lead them to take down the bodies of malefactors from the gibbet on the day of execution. (6.) They would oblige the people everywhere to have their places of interment outside of their towns, a wise practice which some parts of Europe have yet to learn. Thus the Hebrew law, by the simple principle of assigning a defiling quality to a dead body, effected, without detailed legislation, many important objects, at some of which modern civilization is only beginning to arrive. Such legislation is entitled to respect and admiration—Pict. Bib., In loco.
Mount Hor
PROF. E. H. PALMER, M. A.—The position assigned to Mount Hor, namely, " by the coast of the land of Edom," the testimony of ancient writers, and constant tradition, all combine to identify that mountain with the lofty summit now called Mount Harún. This rises so conspicuously above the heights which form the “coast," or border, of Edom as to deserve the name given to it in the Bible, of Ha Hor, or The mountain. On the summit is shown the reputed tomb of Aaron.—Desert of the Exodus, p. 428.
.ARTHUR PENRHYN STANLEY, D. D.—Mount Hor is one of the very few spots connected with the wanderings of the Israelites, which admits of no reasonable doubt.—Sinai and Pal., p. 87.
MR. GEORGE GROVE, Cryst. Pal., London.—Mount Hor is situated on the eastern side of the great valley of the Arabah, the highest and most conspicuous of the whole range of the sandstone mountains of Edom, having close beneath it on its eastern side—though strange to say the two are not visible to each other—the mysterious city of Petra. In the Onomasticon of Eusebius and Jerome it is, Or Mans—a mountain in which Aaron died, close to the city of Petra. Its height is about 4,800 feet above the level of the Mediterranean, and about 1,700 feet above the city of Petra.—Smith's Dict. of the Bible, p. 1087.
ALEXANDER KEITH, D. D.—The tomb of Aaron, on the summit of Mount Hor, is one of the most conspicuous objects in the land of Edom, and, surrounded as it is by many an evidence of prophetic truth, still bears testimony to the death and burying-place of the first High Priest of Israel. Though situated in the midst of the land of the enemies of Israel; and though for many ages possessed by the wild Arabs, neither of Israelitish nor of Christian faith, yet there, on the top of Mount Hor, where he died, is the tomb of Aaron, a memorial on the spot.—Demonstration of the Truth of the Christian Religion, p. 102.
PROF. E. H. PALMER, M. A.—The first thing which met our eyes when we stepped' upon the small plateau, immediately below the summit, was a heap of ruins, and, beside the rock, a huge black caldron, used for boiling the sheep, which are there sacrificed to "the Prophet Aaron." A flight of steps cut in the rock leads up a steep precipice to the tomb itself, and about halfway up these steps is a large cistern or chamber covered in with arches, over which the staircase is built. The door of the tomb was locked at the time, but we contrived to look inside, and saw that the roof was decorated with ostrich shells, and similar ornaments.—Desert of the Exodus, p. 365.
DEAN STANLEY, D. D.—Mount Hor is marked far and nearby its double top, which rises like a huge castellated building from a lower base, and, on one of these is the Mohammedan chapel erected out of the remains of some earlier and more sumptuous building, over the supposed grave of Aaron. There was nothing of interest within; only the usual marks of Mussulman devotion, ragged shawls, ostrich eggs, and a few beads. These were in the upper chamber. From the flat roof of the chapel we overlooked what must have been Aaron's last view—that view which was to him what Pisgah was to his brother. To us the northern end was partly lost in haze; but we saw all the main points on which his eye must have rested. He looked over the valley of the Arabah, countersected by its hundred watercourses, and beyond, over the white mountains of the wilderness they had so long traversed; and at the northern edge of it, there must have been visible the heights through which the Israelites had vainly attempted to force their way into the Promised Land. This was the Western view. Close around him on the East were the rugged mountains of Edom, and far along the horizon the wide downs of Mount Seir, through which the passage had been denied by the wild tribes of Esau who hunted over their long slopes. A dreary moment, and a dreary scene—such at any rate it must have seemed to the aged priest.—Sinai and Palestine, p. 87.
Fiery Serpents
HERODOTUS.—In the age preceding the invasion of Darius, the Neuri were compelled to change their habitations from the multitude of serpents which infested them. Besides what their own soil produced, these came in far greater numbers from the deserts above them. —Herod, 1. iv., v. 105.
STRABO.—141 The country of the Sabæi, in Arabia, are snakes of a dark red color, a span in length, which spring up as high as a man's waist, and whose bite is incurable.—Strabo, 1. xvi., c. 4.
REV. W. L. GAGE.—The discovery by Burckhardt, of venomous reptiles near the northern portion of the Gulf of Akabah, seems not only to corroborate the striking veracity of the sacred narrative, but to fix the place where this evil befell the wandering Israelites.—Studies in Bible Lands, p. 104.
Heshbon
REV. J. LESLIE PORTER, M. A.—Heshbon stood on the western border of the high plain and on the boundary-line between the tribes of Reuben and Gad. The ruins of Hesban, twenty miles east of the Jordan, on the parallel of the northern end of the Dead Sea, mark the site, as they bear the name, of the ancient Heshbon. The ruins stand on a low hill, rising out of the great undulating plateau. They are more than a mile in circuit; but not a building remains entire.—Smith's Dia. of the Bible, p. 1056.
Cursing the Enemy
PLUTARCH. -When Crassus was going to attack the Parthians, Ateius, one of the Tribunes, wishing to stop him, ran before the gate of the city, and placed there a censer, with fire in it. At the approach of Crassus he sprinkled incense on the fire, offered libations, and uttered the most horrid imprecations, invoking at the same time certain dreadful and strange gods. The Romans say these mysterious and ancient imprecations have such power, that the object of them never escapes the effect, and, they add, that the person who uses them is sure to be unhappy; so that they are seldom employed, and never but upon a great occasion.—Crass., c. 16.
IDEM. —All the priests and priestesses at Athens were commanded to denounce an execration against Alcibiades, which was done by them all except Meno.—Alcib., C. 22.
ROBERTS.—The Orientals, in their wars, have always their magicians with them, to curse their enemies, and to mutter incantations for their destruction. In our late war with the Burmese, the generals had several magicians, who were much engaged in cursing our troops; but, as they did not succeed, a number of witches were brought for the same purpose.—Orient. Illust., p. 112.
Isolation of Israel
THE COMPILER.—It was the purpose of God to keep the seed of Abraham, during their minority, or the period of their training and growth into a nation, a community by themselves; they were to "dwell alone," that they might be preserved as far as possible from imbibing the idolatrous notions, or, following the corrupt practices of the nations about them. Now, it would be difficult to find a country, good and pleasant, on the face of the earth, more secluded from all others, and therefore more suitable for the Divine purpose, than Canaan. This land was literally shut out, on all sides, from the rest of the world. To the east lay the vast Assyrian desert; on the west was the long and almost harbor-less coast of the Mediterranean; along the whole southern frontier stretched " the great and terrible Wilderness of Paran; " while on the north it was protected by the stupendous ramparts of Lebanon and Hermon, which left but a narrow gate-way open, the Valley of Cœle Syria, which lay between them. Thus in this land " the Vine of God's own planting " was " hedged round about," by sea and desert and mountain, that neither " the boar of the wood," nor " the beast of the field " should harm it.—Present Conflict of Science with the Christian Religion, p. 618.
Oblation of Jewels
Num. 31:5050We have therefore brought an oblation for the Lord, what every man hath gotten, of jewels of gold, chains, and bracelets, rings, earrings, and tablets, to make an atonement for our souls before the Lord. (Numbers 31:50).—We have therefore brought an oblation for the Lord, what every man hath gotten, of jewels of gold, chains and bracelets, rings, ear-rings, and tablets, to make an atonement for our souls before the Lord.
SIR J. G. WILKINSON.—Numerous specimens of Egyptian rings have been discovered, most of them made of gold, very massive, and containing either a scarabæus or an engraved stone. The number of rings worn by the Egyptians was truly remarkable—Anct. Egypts., Vol. II., p. 337.
LAYARD.—The arms of the Assyrian kings were encircled by armlets, and the wrists by bracelets, all equally remarkable for the taste and beauty of the design and workmanship. In the center of the bracelets were stars and rosettes, which were probably inlaid with precious stones.—Nineveh, Vol. II., 323.
DIODORUS SICULUS.—The Arabians wear lumps of gold about their arms and necks, interlaced with bright sparkling stones—Diod. Sic., III., 45.
ROBERTS.—There is not a man in a thousand among the Hindus who does not wear an ear-ring or a finger-ring; for without such an ornament a person would be classed among the most unfortunate of his race. Some time ago, a large sacrifice was made, for the purpose of removing the cholera morbus, when vast numbers came together with their oblations. The people seemed to take the greatest pleasure in presenting their ear-rings, finger-rings, bracelets and other ornaments, because they were dearer to them than money, and consequently were believed to be more efficacious in appeasing the gods. When people are sick they vow to give a valuable jewel to their god on being restored.—Orient Illust., p. 104.
Gilead
Num. 32:1-51Now the children of Reuben and the children of Gad had a very great multitude of cattle: and when they saw the land of Jazer, and the land of Gilead, that, behold, the place was a place for cattle; 2The children of Gad and the children of Reuben came and spake unto Moses, and to Eleazar the priest, and unto the princes of the congregation, saying, 3Ataroth, and Dibon, and Jazer, and Nimrah, and Heshbon, and Elealeh, and Shebam, and Nebo, and Beon, 4Even the country which the Lord smote before the congregation of Israel, is a land for cattle, and thy servants have cattle: 5Wherefore, said they, if we have found grace in thy sight, let this land be given unto thy servants for a possession, and bring us not over Jordan. (Numbers 32:1‑5).—Now the children of Reuben, and the children of Gad, had a very great multitude of cattle: and when they saw the land of Jazer, and the land of Gilead, that, behold, the place was a place for cattle;—wherefore, said they, if we have found grace in thy sight, let this land be given unto thy servants for a possession, and bring us not over Jordan.
PROF. HORATIO B. HACKETT, D. D., LL. D.—Gilead (or Galaad) was a mountainous region lying, east of the Jordan; bounded on the north by Bashan, on the east by the Arabian plateau, and on the south by Moab and Ammon. One of the most conspicuous peaks in the mountain range still retains the ancient name, being called, Jebel Jil'ad, or Mount Gilead. It is about seven miles south of the Jabbok, and commands a magnificent view over the whole Jordan Valley, and the mountains of Judah and Ephraim. The rich pasture land of Gilead presents a striking contrast to the nakedness of western Palestine. Except among the hills of Galilee and along the heights of Carmel, there is nothing to be compared with it as "a place for cattle." The abundant pastures of Gilead, with its shady forests, and copious streams, attracted the attention of Reuben and Gad, who had a very great multitude of cattle, and was allotted to them. —Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 924-926.
IDEM.—The Prussian Consul, Dr. John Wetzstein, mentions a striking fact in illustration of the fertility of the country assigned to Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh, and of its adaptation to the wants of a nomadic and pastoral people such as many of these Hebrews were. He says that the provinces there of Kanetra and Golan are the best watered and richest for pasturage not only of Peræa but of all Syria; so that the wandering tribes of nomads alone feed there more than 300,000 camels six months in the year, while, as ascertained from the bureau of tax registration at Damascus, forty-two other Bedouin tribes range there during the entire year.—Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 252.
Cities of Refuge
REV. HENRY WRIGHT PHILLOTT, M. A.—It was, and even still is, a common practice, among nations, of patriarchal habits, that the nearest of kin should, as a matter of duty, avenge the death of a murdered relative. The early impressions and practice on this subject may be gathered from writings of a different though a very early age, and of different countries. Compensation for murder is allowed by the Koran, and he who transgresses after this by killing the murderer shall suffer a grievous punishment. Among the Bedouins and other Arab tribes, should the offer of blood-money be refused, the Thar, or law of blood, comes into operation, and any person within the fifth degree of blood from the homicide may be legally killed by anyone within the same degree of consanguinity to the victim. The right to blood-revenge is never lost, except as annulled by compensation: it descends to the latest generation. Similar customs, with local distinctions, are found in Persia, Abyssinia, among the Druses and Circassians.—Smith's Dict. of the Bible, p. 316.
AUSTEN H. LAYARD, M. P.—One of the most remarkable laws in force among the wandering Arabs, and one probably of the highest antiquity, is the law of blood, called the " Thar," prescribing the degrees of consanguinity within which it is lawful to revenge a homicide. If a man commit a homicide, the cadi endeavors to prevail upon the family of the victim to accept a compensation for the blood in money or in kind, the amount being regulated according to custom in different tribes. Should the offer of “blood-money " be refused, the Thar comes into operation, and any person within the "khomse," or the fifth degree of blood of the homicide, may be legally killed by anyone within the same degree of consanguinity to the victim. This law is enforced between tribes remote from one another, as well as between families, and to the blood-revenge may be attributed many of the bitter feuds which exist among the Arab clans. It affects, in many respects, their social condition, and has a marked influence upon their habits, and even upon their manners. Thus an Arab will never tell his name, especially if it be an uncommon one, to a stranger; nor mention that of his father, or of his tribe, if his own name be ascertained, lest there should be Thar between them. Even children are taught to observe this custom that they may not fall victims to the blood-revenge. In most encampments are found refugees, sometimes whole families, who have left their tribe on account of a homicide for which they are amenable. In case, after a murder, persons within the Thar take to flight, three days and four hours are by immemorial custom allowed to the fugitives before they can be pursued. Frequently they never return to their friends, but remain with those who give them protection, and become incorporated into the tribe by which they are adopted. Frequently, the homicide himself will wander from tent to tent over the Desert, or even rove through the towns and villages on its borders, with a chain round his neck and in rags, begging contributions from the charitable to enable him to pay the apportioned blood-money. I have frequently met such unfortunate persons who have spent years in collecting a small sum.—Nineveh and Babylon, p. 260, 261.
PLATO.—If any one kills involuntarily a free-born person—it is requisite for him to withdraw himself from the sufferer through all the seasons of the year, and to cause a void in all his own places through the whole of his native land. —If he is not willing to be an exile, and to complete the stated time, let the nearest relative of the deceased prosecute the murderer on a charge of blood; and let his punishment be doubled if found guilty.—If he return contrary to the law, let the guardians of the law punish him with death.—Plato, De Leg., 1. ix., c. 8.
TACITUS. —The right of asylum was possessed by many Greek and Roman towns, especially Ephesus; this right in process of time became much abused, and was curtailed by order of the Emperor Tiberius.—See Tac. Ann., iii. 60, 63.
IDEM.—The consuls appointed to inquire into the claims of several cities to the privilege of sanctuary reported—That they had found the temple of Esculapius, at Pergamos, to be a genuine sanctuary. The rest claimed upon originals from the darkness of antiquity altogether obscure. —Ann., 1. iii., c. 63.