The Animal Creation

Narrator: Chris Genthree

Genesis 1 • 32 min. read • grade level: 10

That interesting department of natural history—zoology, thus classifies the animal kingdom: first, land mammalia; second, birds or all kinds of flying fowl; third, reptiles or creeping things; fourth, fishes; and fifth, invertebrates. These distributions of animal life are, of course, most useful when scientific accuracy is required.; but to a general reader and for all practical purposes the Scripture classification is amply sufficient as, first, marine creatures; second, winged and flying fowl; and third, land animals. We have the seas, then heaven or the air, and lastly the land respectively stocked with life (Gen. 1:20-25²⁰And God said, Let the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath life, and fowl that may fly above the earth in the open firmament of heaven. ²¹And God created great whales, and every living creature that moveth, which the waters brought forth abundantly, after their kind, and every winged fowl after his kind: and God saw that it was good. ²²And God blessed them, saying, Be fruitful, and multiply, and fill the waters in the seas, and let fowl multiply in the earth. ²³And the evening and the morning were the fifth day. ²⁴And God said, Let the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind, cattle, and creeping thing, and beast of the earth after his kind: and it was so. ²⁵And God made the beast of the earth after his kind, and cattle after their kind, and every thing that creepeth upon the earth after his kind: and God saw that it was good. (Genesis 1:20‑25)). This is the order too observable in modern geological research.

The learned scientists of our proud and highly educated nineteenth century are wont to discharge their intellectual shafts at the credulity and ignorance displayed by the author of the book of Genesis. "This ancient document," say they, "was good enough for a rude and barbarous age, for the world in its infancy; but the Pentateuch has served its purpose, and we can easily afford to lay it aside as a book possessing not the slightest authority, but we will revere it because of its high antiquity, for it is hoary with age. Science has shown that the cosmogony of Moses is altogether out of date and quite irreconcilable with the clear deductions of modern light upon creation and its wonders." Now, we strongly object to the statement that science corroborates the Word of God, nay, it is that word which confirms and seals the certain and carefully ascertained facts and conclusions of science, and adds a luster to these studies when taken up in the fear of God, which is the beginning of wisdom. We will put two or three plain statements before our readers, frankly avowing that our knowledge of the sciences is extremely limited, but our faith in the Word of God supreme: it liveth forever while we are but creatures of a day. First, Has one fact been produced from the realm of nature which contradicts any statement in the Word of God, and if so, Where? and When? We await the proof Second, Is it not a fact that in all, or nearly all, departments of physical science mistakes have been made, and that succeeding investigators have corrected the ignorance and rebuked the assumptions of their predecessors? Third, Has it not been repeatedly demonstrated that the Bible account of creation is not merely in substantial accord with established facts, but in numerous points circumstantially confirms the teachings of science, and which till late years were held to be contradictory? We will adduce two or three examples. How could light exist apart from the sun? Science, however, on the principle of electricity, has established the fact, but it was in the Bible; yes, and in the much abused book of Genesis thousands of years before this was known. The Christian believed it because on the first day God caused the light to be, and on the fourth set the sun in the solar system. He needs not the voice of science to establish the supreme authority of Holy Scripture. The "Book of Stone" has informed the geologist as to the order and ascending scale of animal life, but the Christian can triumphantly point to the Mosaic record of creation and show it written there thousands of years before geology ever had a votary. Ethnology has been pleased to say that it has satisfactorily established the unity of the race, and further, that the human family as now divided can be resolved into three great branches. How much better to have believed in the unity and dignity of the race from the second chapter of Genesis (Gen. 2), and in the three great divisions of mankind from the tenth chapter of that same book (Gen. 10). When will men learn to be somewhat more cautious and careful in their assertions; a little modesty, after being proved to have been wrong so often, might surely befit these men of science. Of this we are fully assured from our gleanings in the writings of the school-men that the Scripture adage, "knowledge puffeth up," is abundantly witnessed in the rash assumptions and unbelieving attacks made upon a document inspired and written by Divine authority 3500 years ago. Some of the brightest intellects which have ever entered the temple of science have cheerfully paid court and homage to the Word of God. Scripture, of course, is independent of man; it never borrows light, but it adds a luster to its students, and it is right and becoming that its pre-eminent dignity be duly acknowledged.

The animal creation is further divided into clean and unclean (Lev. 11³¹These are unclean to you among all that creep: whosoever doth touch them, when they be dead, shall be unclean until the even. (Leviticus 11:31) and Deut. 14²And this is the manner of the release: Every creditor that lendeth ought unto his neighbor shall release it; he shall not exact it of his neighbor, or of his brother; because it is called the Lord's release. (Deuteronomy 15:2)); the former being for sacrifice and for food, while the latter is regarded as unfit for either. In these ceremonial enactments Jehovah had a much higher object in view than the simple regulation of His people's food. There was a moral end in these instructions. God was teaching His people holiness, and although as Christians we are not under these legal requirements, the spirit of them should be cultivated. "Whether, therefore, ye eat or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory of God" (1 Cor. 10:31³¹Whether therefore ye eat, or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory of God. (1 Corinthians 10:31)).

In the following compendium of animal creation will be found embraced all, or nearly so, of every living creature named in the Scriptures, and are arranged in strict alphabetical order. Amongst the birds it will be observed that those of prey predominate. There is also a considerable variety of small birds who inhabit Palestine not named at all. The oft-recurring expression "after his kind" (Lev. 11) intimate a species, and not specialty. Of fishes, none are named although as a class often referred to in the sacred pages and the distinction between clean and unclean accurately pointed out. The waters of Palestine abound in fishes, the Dead Sea excepted. By-and-bye, however, its waters will be healed, and teem with fish in all variety, affording constant occupation to the fisherman on its shores (Ezek. 47)

Adder.-References, Gen. 49:17¹⁷Dan shall be a serpent by the way, an adder in the path, that biteth the horse heels, so that his rider shall fall backward. (Genesis 49:17); Prov. 23:32³²At the last it biteth like a serpent, and stingeth like an adder. (Proverbs 23:32), etc. A venomous reptile of the serpent species. Its characteristics will be best known by carefully consulting the Scripture references.

Ant.-References, Prov. 6:6-8;30:25⁶Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise: ⁷Which having no guide, overseer, or ruler, ⁸Provideth her meat in the summer, and gathereth her food in the harvest. (Proverbs 6:6‑8)
²⁵The ants are a people not strong, yet they prepare their meat in the summer; (Proverbs 30:25). These industrious little insects are very numerous in Palestine. They form a colony, hut without any recognized leader, and yet labor harmoniously in storing up during summer food for winter use.

Ape.-References, 2 Chron. 9:21; 1²¹For the king's ships went to Tarshish with the servants of Huram: every three years once came the ships of Tarshish bringing gold, and silver, ivory, and apes, and peacocks. (2 Chronicles 9:21)
⁴Behold, I build an house to the name of the Lord my God, to dedicate it to him, and to burn before him sweet incense, and for the continual showbread, and for the burnt offerings morning and evening, on the sabbaths, and on the new moons, and on the solemn feasts of the Lord our God. This is an ordinance for ever to Israel. (2 Chronicles 2:4) Kings 10:22. This is one of the few animals not metaphorically mentioned in Scripture. It was not a native of Palestine, but was introduced into the country every three years by Solomon, whose ships imported them from Southern India or the large island of Ceylon. What species of the monkey tribe is referred to we cannot tell.

Ass.-References, Gen. 12:16¹⁶And he entreated Abram well for her sake: and he had sheep, and oxen, and he asses, and menservants, and maidservants, and she asses, and camels. (Genesis 12:16); Job 39:5⁵Who hath sent out the wild ass free? or who hath loosed the bands of the wild ass? (Job 39:5), etc. In Palestine and adjacent countries, the ass was the favorite traveling animal, and was ridden by kings, nobles, and persons of distinction. It betokened peace (Zech. 9:9⁹Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion; shout, O daughter of Jerusalem: behold, thy King cometh unto thee: he is just, and having salvation; lowly, and riding upon an ass, and upon a colt the foal of an ass. (Zechariah 9:9)), as the horse did war (Rev. 19:11¹¹And I saw heaven opened, and behold a white horse; and he that sat upon him was called Faithful and True, and in righteousness he doth judge and make war. (Revelation 19:11)). The wild ass is noted for its stubbornness, fleetness, love of freedom, etc.

Badger.-References, Ex. 25:5⁵And rams' skins dyed red, and badgers' skins, and shittim wood, (Exodus 25:5); Num. 4:8⁸And they shall spread upon them a cloth of scarlet, and cover the same with a covering of badgers' skins, and shall put in the staves thereof. (Numbers 4:8). The skin of this animal was used as an outer covering in the tabernacle, and was peculiarly well adapted for the purpose, being exceedingly durable, impervious to the weather, and the fur being long and thick. The skin of the badger is still a valuable commodity in the East. We see no reason for identifying this animal with the "seal," as some do.

Bat.-References, Lev. 11:19¹⁹And the stork, the heron after her kind, and the lapwing, and the bat. (Leviticus 11:19); Isa. 2:20²⁰In that day a man shall cast his idols of silver, and his idols of gold, which they made each one for himself to worship, to the moles and to the bats; (Isaiah 2:20), etc. This nocturnal little animal dreads the light. Swarms of them inhabit the caverns and dark recesses so common in Palestine. It was an unclean animal under the law, and is the chosen symbol of darkness and desolation.

Bear.-References, 2 Sam. 17:8⁸For, said Hushai, thou knowest thy father and his men, that they be mighty men, and they be chafed in their minds, as a bear robbed of her whelps in the field: and thy father is a man of war, and will not lodge with the people. (2 Samuel 17:8); Dan. 7:5⁵And behold another beast, a second, like to a bear, and it raised up itself on one side, and it had three ribs in the mouth of it between the teeth of it: and they said thus unto it, Arise, devour much flesh. (Daniel 7:5), etc. The fierceness, cruelty, and tenacity of grasp displayed by this animal are frequently referred to in the prophets. Anciently it was the dread and terror of the Palestinean shepherds. Now, however, the bear is only to be seen in the mountainous parts of the country.

Beast.-References, Dan. 7; Rev. 4 The four great empires are represented as wild beasts in the book of Daniel, but in Rev. 4 and Rev. 5 the word should be translated "living creatures." "Beasts of the earth" are distinguished from "cattle," in Gen. 1:24²⁴And God said, Let the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind, cattle, and creeping thing, and beast of the earth after his kind: and it was so. (Genesis 1:24), the former being wild animals, while the latter are domesticated.

Bee.-References, Judg. 14:8⁸And after a time he returned to take her, and he turned aside to see the carcase of the lion: and, behold, there was a swarm of bees and honey in the carcase of the lion. (Judges 14:8); Deut. 1:44⁴⁴And the Amorites, which dwelt in that mountain, came out against you, and chased you, as bees do, and destroyed you in Seir, even unto Hormah. (Deuteronomy 1:44), etc. This most useful insect was and is still most numerous in the East. The dry and warm climate and varied flora of the country have made Palestine famous for its honey "a land flowing with honey." From the numerous hives, both of wild and domesticated bees, the inhabitants from time immemorial have derived a considerable revenue from the sale of the rich honey so plentiful, being found in rocks, hollow trees, etc. The immense swarms and fierce attacks upon man and beast are frequently alluded to in Scripture.

Beetle.-Reference, Lev. 11:22²²Even these of them ye may eat; the locust after his kind, and the bald locust after his kind, and the beetle after his kind, and the grasshopper after his kind. (Leviticus 11:22). As this is the only place where the word "beetle" occurs, and judging from the description given, it must have been of the "locust" species, and hence allowed for food.

Behemoth.-Reference, Job 40:15-24¹⁵Behold now behemoth, which I made with thee; he eateth grass as an ox. ¹⁶Lo now, his strength is in his loins, and his force is in the navel of his belly. ¹⁷He moveth his tail like a cedar: the sinews of his stones are wrapped together. ¹⁸His bones are as strong pieces of brass; his bones are like bars of iron. ¹⁹He is the chief of the ways of God: he that made him can make his sword to approach unto him. ²⁰Surely the mountains bring him forth food, where all the beasts of the field play. ²¹He lieth under the shady trees, in the covert of the reed, and fens. ²²The shady trees cover him with their shadow; the willows of the brook compass him about. ²³Behold, he drinketh up a river, and hasteth not: he trusteth that he can draw up Jordan into his mouth. ²⁴He taketh it with his eyes: his nose pierceth through snares. (Job 40:15‑24). This word only occurs in this passage in Job, and there is little doubt but that the huge amphibious animal referred to is the hippopotamus, frequenting the rivers of Africa, and anciently found in the Jordan. "He is the chief of the ways of God" in the animal creation.

Bittern.-References, Isa. 14:23²³I will also make it a possession for the bittern, and pools of water: and I will sweep it with the besom of destruction, saith the Lord of hosts. (Isaiah 14:23); Zeph. 2:14¹⁴And flocks shall lie down in the midst of her, all the beasts of the nations: both the cormorant and the bittern shall lodge in the upper lintels of it; their voice shall sing in the windows; desolation shall be in the thresholds: for he shall uncover the cedar work. (Zephaniah 2:14), etc. This solitary bird selects the ruins, wastes, and marshy pines, where it utters its peculiar cry during the silence of the night. It is connected with the truly awful desolations which befell Nineveh, Babylon, and Idumea.

Boar.-Reference, Psa. 80:13¹³The boar out of the wood doth waste it, and the wild beast of the field doth devour it. (Psalm 80:13). The wild boar, although only mentioned once, was and is yet found in large numbers in the woods of Palestine, and is one of the most destructive animals amongst the crops, vineyards, and flocks. Amongst Jews and Moslems this animal is regarded as peculiarly unclean.

Bull.-References, Isa. 51:20²⁰Thy sons have fainted, they lie at the head of all the streets, as a wild bull in a net: they are full of the fury of the Lord, the rebuke of thy God. (Isaiah 51:20); Deut. 14:5⁵The hart, and the roebuck, and the fallow deer, and the wild goat, and the pygarg, and the wild ox, and the chamois. (Deuteronomy 14:5). This wild animal was allowed the Jews for food. It has been considered, from the reference in Isaiah, that some species of antelope is meant, but it cannot be said with certainty what particular animal is referred to; "wild bull" and "wild ox" are the translations of the same Hebrew word.

Calf.-References, Gen. 18:7⁷And Abraham ran unto the herd, and fetcht a calf tender and good, and gave it unto a young man; and he hasted to dress it. (Genesis 18:7); Amos 6:4⁴That lie upon beds of ivory, and stretch themselves upon their couches, and eat the lambs out of the flock, and the calves out of the midst of the stall; (Amos 6:4). The bull calf was the favorite animal for food, and many were stalled and carefully looked after for this purpose, while others were kept ready for agricultural purposes only. The bull calf was a national form of worship in Egypt, and we may add of Israel too (Ex. 32⁴And he received them at their hand, and fashioned it with a graving tool, after he had made it a molten calf: and they said, These be thy gods, O Israel, which brought thee up out of the land of Egypt. (Exodus 32:4)).

Camel.-References, Judg. 7:12¹²And the Midianites and the Amalekites and all the children of the east lay along in the valley like grasshoppers for multitude; and their camels were without number, as the sand by the sea side for multitude. (Judges 7:12); 2 Kings 8:9⁹So Hazael went to meet him, and took a present with him, even of every good thing of Damascus, forty camels' burden, and came and stood before him, and said, Thy son Ben-hadad king of Syria hath sent me to thee, saying, Shall I recover of this disease? (2 Kings 8:9), etc. This valuable animal and beast of burden—"the ship of the desert"—is probably the most useful animal in the East. It is indispensable in treading the Arabian Desert, and constituted an important part of wealth in Bible lands, as the numerous Scripture references show.

Canker-worm.-References, Joel 1:4; 2:25⁴That which the palmerworm hath left hath the locust eaten; and that which the locust hath left hath the cankerworm eaten; and that which the cankerworm hath left hath the caterpiller eaten. (Joel 1:4)
²⁵And I will restore to you the years that the locust hath eaten, the cankerworm, and the caterpiller, and the palmerworm, my great army which I sent among you. (Joel 2:25), etc. In the few passages where this insect is named its destructive power is referred to. It is an apt and striking illustration of the utter desolation and wasting caused by countless and irresistible enemies; and its ravages in the East are dreaded as the plague. The "canker-worm " is the Eastern "locust" in its larva state.

Caterpillar.-References, Isa. 33:4⁴And your spoil shall be gathered like the gathering of the caterpiller: as the running to and fro of locusts shall he run upon them. (Isaiah 33:4); Psa. 78:46⁴⁶He gave also their increase unto the caterpiller, and their labor unto the locust. (Psalm 78:46), etc. The Hebrew word for "canker-worm" signifies licker up, and for "caterpillar," consumer. No doubt The locust is meant, but in the state before it assumes its wings. It is an emblem of utter wasting and destruction.

Chameleon.-Reference, Lev. 11:30³⁰And the ferret, and the chameleon, and the lizard, and the snail, and the mole. (Leviticus 11:30). As the original word denotes strength, it is believed that the reference is to one of the large and powerful lizard species abounding in Palestine. It was an unclean animal under the Law.

Chamois.-Reference, Deut. 14:5⁵The hart, and the roebuck, and the fallow deer, and the wild goat, and the pygarg, and the wild ox, and the chamois. (Deuteronomy 14:5). As the animal known to us as the "chamois" never inhabited Palestine or adjacent countries, it is generally regarded, in this the only passage where the name occurs, as the wild sheep now almost extinct in Bible lands. It was a clean animal under the Law.

Cockatrice.--References, Isa. 11:8⁸And the sucking child shall play on the hole of the asp, and the weaned child shall put his hand on the cockatrice' den. (Isaiah 11:8); Jer. 8:17¹⁷For, behold, I will send serpents, cockatrices, among you, which will not be charmed, and they shall bite you, saith the Lord. (Jeremiah 8:17), etc. The particular reptile referred to cannot with certainty be determined, but the various Scripture passages in which the name occurs show that a deadly, poisonous snake is meant.

Cock.-References, Matt. 26:34³⁴Jesus said unto him, Verily I say unto thee, That this night, before the cock crow, thou shalt deny me thrice. (Matthew 26:34); Mark 14:30³⁰And Jesus saith unto him, Verily I say unto thee, That this day, even in this night, before the cock crow twice, thou shalt deny me thrice. (Mark 14:30). This domestic fowl is only mentioned in the Gospels, and was certainly unknown to the Jews previous to the captivity, being imported from India. The certainty and regularity of its midnight crowing is connected with some solemn warnings and teachings in the Gospels.

Colt.-References, Gen. 49:2; 32:15²Gather yourselves together, and hear, ye sons of Jacob; and hearken unto Israel your father. (Genesis 49:2)
¹⁵Thirty milch camels with their colts, forty kine, and ten bulls, twenty she asses, and ten foals. (Genesis 32:15), etc. Young camel or ass. The colts were frequently used for riding by persons of distinction, and represent an ungovernable will, as in the book of Job and elsewhere.

Coney.-References, Psa. 104:18¹⁸The high hills are a refuge for the wild goats; and the rocks for the conies. (Psalm 104:18); Pro. 30:26²⁶The conies are but a feeble folk, yet make they their houses in the rocks; (Proverbs 30:26), etc. An unclean animal. This small animal inhabits the rocks, and is exceedingly watchful and wary on the approach of danger. The wisdom of this diminutive little creature—about the size of the rabbit—in selecting high rocks for its dwelling is a lesson to us worth pondering.

Coral.-References, Ezek. 27:16¹⁶Syria was thy merchant by reason of the multitude of the wares of thy making: they occupied in thy fairs with emeralds, purple, and broidered work, and fine linen, and coral, and agate. (Ezekiel 27:16); Job 28:18¹⁸No mention shall be made of coral, or of pearls: for the price of wisdom is above rubies. (Job 28:18). The finest coral was procured from the Red Sea or Persian Gulf, and was greatly prized for its beauty and value. Coral is the interesting workmanship of millions of sea creatures who lived and died at the bottom of the waters.

Cormorant-References, Lev. 11:17¹⁷And the little owl, and the cormorant, and the great owl, (Leviticus 11:17); Deut. 14:17¹⁷And the pelican, and the gier eagle, and the cormorant, (Deuteronomy 14:17). Another of the unclean birds abounding about the rivers and sea coasts of Palestine. The word literally means plunger; it is one of those birds who plunge into the water in pursuit of its prey.

Cow.-References, Lev. 22:28²⁸And whether it be cow or ewe, ye shall not kill it and her young both in one day. (Leviticus 22:28); Isa. 7:21²¹And it shall come to pass in that day, that a man shall nourish a young cow, and two sheep; (Isaiah 7:21), etc. The cow formed an integral part of wealth in such an agricultural country as Palestine, and generally denotes abundance. The 'bullock" on the other hand is the chosen symbol of service and patient labor, and was the most valuable animal offered in sacrifice on Jewish altars.

Crane.-References, Jer. 8:7⁷Yea, the stork in the heaven knoweth her appointed times; and the turtle and the crane and the swallow observe the time of their coming; but my people know not the judgment of the Lord. (Jeremiah 8:7); Isa. 38:14¹⁴Like a crane or a swallow, so did I chatter: I did mourn as a dove: mine eyes fail with looking upward: O Lord, I am oppressed; undertake for me. (Isaiah 38:14)., This gregarious bird is of large size and is remarkable for two characteristics, both noted in the references—first, its peculiar trumpet-like cry, and second, its regular migratory habits.

Cuckow.-References, Deut. 14:15¹⁵And the owl, and the night hawk, and the cuckow, and the hawk after his kind, (Deuteronomy 14:15); Lev. 11:16¹⁶And the owl, and the night hawk, and the cuckow, and the hawk after his kind, (Leviticus 11:16). A species of sea-fowl, but the particular bird referred to is uncertain. It is ranked amongst the unclean birds under the Law.

Dog.-References, Psa. 22:16¹⁶For dogs have compassed me: the assembly of the wicked have inclosed me: they pierced my hands and my feet. (Psalm 22:16); Phil. 3:2²Beware of dogs, beware of evil workers, beware of the concision. (Philippians 3:2), etc. The Scripture references to this most common of all animals are, as a rule, employed to signify contempt and cruelty. The Jews still speak of "Gentile dogs," and Mahomedans of "Christian dogs."

Dove.-References, Gen. 8:9⁹But the dove found no rest for the sole of her foot, and she returned unto him into the ark, for the waters were on the face of the whole earth: then he put forth his hand, and took her, and pulled her in unto him into the ark. (Genesis 8:9); Sol. 2:14¹⁴O my dove, that art in the clefts of the rock, in the secret places of the stairs, let me see thy countenance, let me hear thy voice; for sweet is thy voice, and thy countenance is comely. (Song of Solomon 2:14), etc. This was one of the clean birds, and could be offered in sacrifice by even the poorest of the people. The Scripture references are equally abundant in Old and New Testaments, and represent certain gracious qualities. It is also the symbol of peace.

Dragon.-References, Mic. 1:8⁸Therefore I will wail and howl, I will go stripped and naked: I will make a wailing like the dragons, and mourning as the owls. (Micah 1:8); Job 30:29²⁹I am a brother to dragons, and a companion to owls. (Job 30:29), etc. Whatever animal may be meant in these and other passages it is difficult to say, but certainly it is the selected symbol denoting cruelty, desolation, and utter loneliness,

Dromedary.-References, Isa. 60:6⁶The multitude of camels shall cover thee, the dromedaries of Midian and Ephah; all they from Sheba shall come: they shall bring gold and incense; and they shall show forth the praises of the Lord. (Isaiah 60:6); Jer. 2:23²³How canst thou say, I am not polluted, I have not gone after Baalim? see thy way in the valley, know what thou hast done: thou art a swift dromedary traversing her ways; (Jeremiah 2:23). An exceedingly swift animal of the camel species. Wherever the word occurs in Scripture a swift, speedy animal is meant, and one smaller than the ordinary camel.

Eagle.-References, Lev. 11:13¹³And these are they which ye shall have in abomination among the fowls; they shall not be eaten, they are an abomination: the eagle, and the ossifrage, and the ospray, (Leviticus 11:13); Deut. 32:11¹¹As an eagle stirreth up her nest, fluttereth over her young, spreadeth abroad her wings, taketh them, beareth them on her wings: (Deuteronomy 32:11), etc. This unclean bird of prey is frequently alluded to in Scripture. Its swiftness, love of offspring, keenness of vision, longevity, and other characteristics are noted. It is a symbol of judgment (Matt. 24:28²⁸For wheresoever the carcase is, there will the eagles be gathered together. (Matthew 24:28)).

Elephant-References, 1 Kings 10:22; 2²²For the king had at sea a navy of Tharshish with the navy of Hiram: once in three years came the navy of Tharshish, bringing gold, and silver, ivory, and apes, and peacocks. (1 Kings 10:22)
²²And king Solomon answered and said unto his mother, And why dost thou ask Abishag the Shunammite for Adonijah? ask for him the kingdom also; for he is mine elder brother; even for him, and for Abiathar the priest, and for Joab the son of Zeruiah. (1 Kings 2:22) Chron. 9:21. This huge animal, so well known in India and Africa, was not introduced into Canaan till the wars of Antiochus of Syria with Egypt, and is not even named in Scripture, save in the margin of the passages here given.

Fallow deer.-References, 1 King 4: 23; Deut. 14:5⁵The hart, and the roebuck, and the fallow deer, and the wild goat, and the pygarg, and the wild ox, and the chamois. (Deuteronomy 14:5). This clean animal is noted for its agility, gracefulness, and beauty. It figures largely in Eastern song.

Ferret.-Reference, Lev. 11:30³⁰And the ferret, and the chameleon, and the lizard, and the snail, and the mole. (Leviticus 11:30). This unclean animal is only mentioned once in Scripture, and is believed to denote some species of lizard.

Flea. -References, 1 Sam. 24:14; 26:20¹⁴After whom is the king of Israel come out? after whom dost thou pursue? after a dead dog, after a flea. (1 Samuel 24:14)
²⁰Now therefore, let not my blood fall to the earth before the face of the Lord: for the king of Israel is come out to seek a flea, as when one doth hunt a partridge in the mountains. (1 Samuel 26:20). This little insect swarms in countless numbers, and is of course in all warm countries exceedingly troublesome. It is used in these, the only two passages where the word occurs, as the expression of insignificance.

Fly.-References, Ex. 8:21-31²¹Else, if thou wilt not let my people go, behold, I will send swarms of flies upon thee, and upon thy servants, and upon thy people, and into thy houses: and the houses of the Egyptians shall be full of swarms of flies, and also the ground whereon they are. ²²And I will sever in that day the land of Goshen, in which my people dwell, that no swarms of flies shall be there; to the end thou mayest know that I am the Lord in the midst of the earth. ²³And I will put a division between my people and thy people: to morrow shall this sign be. ²⁴And the Lord did so; and there came a grievous swarm of flies into the house of Pharaoh, and into his servants' houses, and into all the land of Egypt: the land was corrupted by reason of the swarm of flies. ²⁵And Pharaoh called for Moses and for Aaron, and said, Go ye, sacrifice to your God in the land. ²⁶And Moses said, It is not meet so to do; for we shall sacrifice the abomination of the Egyptians to the Lord our God: lo, shall we sacrifice the abomination of the Egyptians before their eyes, and will they not stone us? ²⁷We will go three days' journey into the wilderness, and sacrifice to the Lord our God, as he shall command us. ²⁸And Pharaoh said, I will let you go, that ye may sacrifice to the Lord your God in the wilderness; only ye shall not go very far away: entreat for me. ²⁹And Moses said, Behold, I go out from thee, and I will entreat the Lord that the swarms of flies may depart from Pharaoh, from his servants, and from his people, to morrow: but let not Pharaoh deal deceitfully any more in not letting the people go to sacrifice to the Lord. ³⁰And Moses went out from Pharaoh, and entreated the Lord. ³¹And the Lord did according to the word of Moses; and he removed the swarms of flies from Pharaoh, from his servants, and from his people; there remained not one. (Exodus 8:21‑31); Eccl. 10:1¹Dead flies cause the ointment of the apothecary to send forth a stinking savor: so doth a little folly him that is in reputation for wisdom and honor. (Ecclesiastes 10:1), etc. In these and other Scriptures there is no particular species of fly pointed out. Their number and variety are almost legion in Bible lands.

Foal.-References, Gen. 32:15¹⁵Thirty milch camels with their colts, forty kine, and ten bulls, twenty she asses, and ten foals. (Genesis 32:15); Zech. 9:9⁹Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion; shout, O daughter of Jerusalem: behold, thy King cometh unto thee: he is just, and having salvation; lowly, and riding upon an ass, and upon a colt the foal of an ass. (Zechariah 9:9), etc. The Mosaic law was most careful in caring for the young of animals generally, which the "foal," the young of the "horse" and of the "ass" shared.

Fox.-References, Judg. 15:4⁴And Samson went and caught three hundred foxes, and took firebrands, and turned tail to tail, and put a firebrand in the midst between two tails. (Judges 15:4); Ezek. 13:4⁴O Israel, thy prophets are like the foxes in the deserts. (Ezekiel 13:4), etc. This nocturnal and gregarious animal is undoubtedly the "jackal" in most of the passages where the word "fox" occurs. They are still plentiful in the East and assemble during the night in large packs and are exceedingly troublesome to the gardens and vineyards and to domestic cattle and fowls. Cunning, cruelty, and destructiveness are the characteristics of this animal as pointed out in the Word of God.

Frog.-References, Ex. 8:2²And if thou refuse to let them go, behold, I will smite all thy borders with frogs: (Exodus 8:2); Rev. 16:13¹³And I saw three unclean spirits like frogs come out of the mouth of the dragon, and out of the mouth of the beast, and out of the mouth of the false prophet. (Revelation 16:13). This amphibious reptile is several times mentioned in Scripture but always, save in the Apocalypse, in connection with Egypt. The "frog" abounds in the rivers and marshy places in Syria but especially in Egypt.

Glede.-Reference, Deut. 14:13¹³And the glede, and the kite, and the vulture after his kind, (Deuteronomy 14:13). This unclean bird is probably of the vulture species. In the only other passage where the original word occurs it is translated "vulture" (Lev. 11:14¹⁴And the vulture, and the kite after his kind; (Leviticus 11:14)).

Gnat.-Reference, Matt. 23:24²⁴Ye blind guides, which strain at a gnat, and swallow a camel. (Matthew 23:24). The reference is to the smallest of insects which is contrasted with the largest Palestinean animal the camel. The words in the text "strain at," should be "strain out."

Goat.-References, Lev. 16:8,10,26⁸And Aaron shall cast lots upon the two goats; one lot for the Lord, and the other lot for the scapegoat. (Leviticus 16:8)
¹⁰But the goat, on which the lot fell to be the scapegoat, shall be presented alive before the Lord, to make an atonement with him, and to let him go for a scapegoat into the wilderness. (Leviticus 16:10)
²⁶And he that let go the goat for the scapegoat shall wash his clothes, and bathe his flesh in water, and afterward come into the camp. (Leviticus 16:26); Num. 15:24-29²⁴Then it shall be, if ought be committed by ignorance without the knowledge of the congregation, that all the congregation shall offer one young bullock for a burnt offering, for a sweet savor unto the Lord, with his meat offering, and his drink offering, according to the manner, and one kid of the goats for a sin offering. ²⁵And the priest shall make an atonement for all the congregation of the children of Israel, and it shall be forgiven them; for it is ignorance: and they shall bring their offering, a sacrifice made by fire unto the Lord, and their sin offering before the Lord, for their ignorance: ²⁶And it shall be forgiven all the congregation of the children of Israel, and the stranger that sojourneth among them; seeing all the people were in ignorance. ²⁷And if any soul sin through ignorance, then he shall bring a she goat of the first year for a sin offering. ²⁸And the priest shall make an atonement for the soul that sinneth ignorantly, when he sinneth by ignorance before the Lord, to make an atonement for him; and it shall be forgiven him. ²⁹Ye shall have one law for him that sinneth through ignorance, both for him that is born among the children of Israel, and for the stranger that sojourneth among them. (Numbers 15:24‑29), etc. This clean animal was pre-eminently the sin-offering victim. In patriarchial times especially the goat formed an important and valuable item of wealth. Its flesh could. be eaten for food, its milk was greatly prized, and its skin largely used for numerous purposes. It is the symbol of the strong and compact Macedonian power (Dan. 8:5⁵And as I was considering, behold, an he goat came from the west on the face of the whole earth, and touched not the ground: and the goat had a notable horn between his eyes. (Daniel 8:5)), of the wicked generally (Matt. 25:31-33³¹When the Son of man shall come in his glory, and all the holy angels with him, then shall he sit upon the throne of his glory: ³²And before him shall be gathered all nations: and he shall separate them one from another, as a shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats: ³³And he shall set the sheep on his right hand, but the goats on the left. (Matthew 25:31‑33)), and of the great and mighty (Ezek. 39:18¹⁸Ye shall eat the flesh of the mighty, and drink the blood of the princes of the earth, of rams, of lambs, and of goats, of bullocks, all of them fatlings of Bashan. (Ezekiel 39:18)). The habits and qualities of this well-known animal, both wild and domesticated, are frequently referred to in the Sacred Writings.

Grasshopper.-References, Num. 13:33³³And there we saw the giants, the sons of Anak, which come of the giants: and we were in our own sight as grasshoppers, and so we were in their sight. (Numbers 13:33); Eccl. 12:5⁵Also when they shall be afraid of that which is high, and fears shall be in the way, and the almond tree shall flourish, and the grasshopper shall be a burden, and desire shall fail: because man goeth to his long home, and the mourners go about the streets: (Ecclesiastes 12:5), etc. This troublesome insect and Eastern scourge is a species of locust, but permitted as food to the Jews. The immense swarms and destructive character of these insects to vegetation are described with remarkable minuteness and graphically portrayed in the prophet Joel. Teaching and lessons of great interest are drawn from the ways and habits of this very common little creature in Palestine and the East.

Greyhound.-Reference, Prov. 30:31³¹A greyhound; an he goat also; and a king, against whom there is no rising up. (Proverbs 30:31). This word only occurs once in the Bible and the margin which explains the meaning of the word as "girt in the loins," also says it is the "horse." A fleet animal is no doubt referred to.

Hare.-References, Lev. 11:6⁶And the hare, because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is unclean unto you. (Leviticus 11:6); Deut. 14:7⁷Nevertheless these ye shall not eat of them that chew the cud, or of them that divide the cloven hoof; as the camel, and the hare, and the coney: for they chew the cud, but divide not the hoof; therefore they are unclean unto you. (Deuteronomy 14:7). This was another of the unclean animals and hence prohibited for food. The Palestinean hare closely resembles our own.

Hart.-References, Isa. 35:6⁶Then shall the lame man leap as an hart, and the tongue of the dumb sing: for in the wilderness shall waters break out, and streams in the desert. (Isaiah 35:6); Psa. 42⁶O my God, my soul is cast down within me: therefore will I remember thee from the land of Jordan, and of the Hermonites, from the hill Mizar. (Psalm 42:6) I, etc. This Mosaically clean animal was a species of deer and is noted for its swiftness, activity, affection, and earnest longings for water. There are some precious lessons drawn from the movements and habits of this graceful animal.

Hawk.-References, Lev. 11:16¹⁶And the owl, and the night hawk, and the cuckow, and the hawk after his kind, (Leviticus 11:16); Job 39:26²⁶Doth the hawk fly by thy wisdom, and stretch her wings toward the south? (Job 39:26). This unclean species of bird is the common name for small birds of prey of which there are a considerable number in Palestine. God gives the wisdom, or rather instinct, to these migratory birds to seek a warmer climate, so says Job.

Heifer.-References, Gen. 15:9⁹And he said unto him, Take me an heifer of three years old, and a she goat of three years old, and a ram of three years old, and a turtledove, and a young pigeon. (Genesis 15:9); Num. 19⁹And a man that is clean shall gather up the ashes of the heifer, and lay them up without the camp in a clean place, and it shall be kept for the congregation of the children of Israel for a water of separation: it is a purification for sin. (Numbers 19:9), etc. This animal was simply a young cow. In the special provision for wilderness defilement a red heifer was to be sacrificed as a sin-offering. The untamed character and unbroken will of these well-fed animals are beautifully alluded to in the Prophets, and their mournful lowing, as figuring the desolation and distress of Moab (Isa. 15:5⁵My heart shall cry out for Moab; his fugitives shall flee unto Zoar, an heifer of three years old: for by the mounting up of Luhith with weeping shall they go it up; for in the way of Horonaim they shall raise up a cry of destruction. (Isaiah 15:5)), is told us in the grandest of all the Prophets.

Heron.-References, Lev. 11:19¹⁹And the stork, the heron after her kind, and the lapwing, and the bat. (Leviticus 11:19); Deut. 14:18¹⁸And the stork, and the heron after her kind, and the lapwing, and the bat. (Deuteronomy 14:18). This unclean bird is but one of a species common enough in Palestine and Syria generally. In both of the passages referred to—the only ones where the heron is named—it is said, "the heron after her kind," showing that a species is meant and not a particular bird merely.

Hind. -References, Gen. 49:21²¹Naphtali is a hind let loose: he giveth goodly words. (Genesis 49:21); 2 Sam. 22:34³⁴He maketh my feet like hinds' feet: and setteth me upon my high places. (2 Samuel 22:34), etc. This beautiful animal is the female deer, while the "hart" is the male stag. The intense love of liberty, and other characteristics of this animal are accurately depicted in the Word of God.

Hornet.-References, Deut. 7:20²⁰Moreover the Lord thy God will send the hornet among them, until they that are left, and hide themselves from thee, be destroyed. (Deuteronomy 7:20); Ex. 23:28²⁸And I will send hornets before thee, which shall drive out the Hivite, the Canaanite, and the Hittite, from before thee. (Exodus 23:28), etc. This is amongst the largest and certainly the most dangerous of insects when irritated. Their sting is most painful, and, as they swarm in large numbers, occasionally attacking man and beast, madness and death often ensue. They are, in the earlier stages of Israel's history spoken of as the instruments of Divine judgment upon the Canaanites.

Horse.-References, Deut. 17:16¹⁶But he shall not multiply horses to himself, nor cause the people to return to Egypt, to the end that he should multiply horses: forasmuch as the Lord hath said unto you, Ye shall henceforth return no more that way. (Deuteronomy 17:16); Zech. 1:8⁸I saw by night, and behold a man riding upon a red horse, and he stood among the myrtle trees that were in the bottom; and behind him were there red horses, speckled, and white. (Zechariah 1:8), etc. This useful animal was not used as a beast of burden or applied to agricultural purposes as with us. The Jews were forbidden to multiply them (Deut. 17:16¹⁶But he shall not multiply horses to himself, nor cause the people to return to Egypt, to the end that he should multiply horses: forasmuch as the Lord hath said unto you, Ye shall henceforth return no more that way. (Deuteronomy 17:16)) as calculated to withdraw the heart from Jehovah. Egypt was famous for its cavalry, and in Scripture the "horse" is regarded as the symbol of war, the ass of peace. The Scripture references to the qualities of the horse are very numerous.

Kid.-References, Gen. 27:9⁹Go now to the flock, and fetch me from thence two good kids of the goats; and I will make them savory meat for thy father, such as he loveth: (Genesis 27:9); Num. 7:87⁸⁷All the oxen for the burnt offering were twelve bullocks, the rams twelve, the lambs of the first year twelve, with their meat offering: and the kids of the goats for sin offering twelve. (Numbers 7:87), etc. The kid or young of the goat was greatly prized as a luxury at table, and is so still. The flesh being fine and tender made the kid a peculiarly desirable article of food amongst all Orientals, and in honor of special guests it was customary to select from the flock a well-favored kid for dinner. It was also used as a sin-offering.

Kite.-Reference, Lev. 11:14¹⁴And the vulture, and the kite after his kind; (Leviticus 11:14). This rapacious and unclean bird cannot with certainty be identified, but as the same Hebrew word is translated "vulture" in Job 28:7⁷There is a path which no fowl knoweth, and which the vulture's eye hath not seen: (Job 28:7), and its keen sight referred to, it no doubt refers to a species of the sharp-sighted vulture.

Lamb.-References, Ex. 12:5⁵Your lamb shall be without blemish, a male of the first year: ye shall take it out from the sheep, or from the goats: (Exodus 12:5); Lev. 23:19¹⁹Then ye shall sacrifice one kid of the goats for a sin offering, and two lambs of the first year for a sacrifice of peace offerings. (Leviticus 23:19), etc. A lamb, according to Scripture, might be either the young of the sheep or goats. It was the paschal offering (Ex. 12¹⁹Seven days shall there be no leaven found in your houses: for whosoever eateth that which is leavened, even that soul shall be cut off from the congregation of Israel, whether he be a stranger, or born in the land. (Exodus 12:19)); daily sacrifice—morning and evening (Ex. 29:38,39³⁸Now this is that which thou shalt offer upon the altar; two lambs of the first year day by day continually. ³⁹The one lamb thou shalt offer in the morning; and the other lamb thou shalt offer at even: (Exodus 29:38‑39)); weekly sacrifice (Num. 28:9⁹And on the sabbath day two lambs of the first year without spot, and two tenth deals of flour for a meat offering, mingled with oil, and the drink offering thereof: (Numbers 28:9); monthly sacrifices (Num. 28⁹And on the sabbath day two lambs of the first year without spot, and two tenth deals of flour for a meat offering, mingled with oil, and the drink offering thereof: (Numbers 28:9) ix); yearly sacrifices (Lev. 23⁹And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying, (Leviticus 23:9), etc.); also offered on special occasions.

Lapwing.-References, Lev. 11:19¹⁹And the stork, the heron after her kind, and the lapwing, and the bat. (Leviticus 11:19); Deut. 14:18¹⁸And the stork, and the heron after her kind, and the lapwing, and the bat. (Deuteronomy 14:18). This was another of the unclean, therefore prohibited birds. From the translation of the word it is now generally regarded as the "hoopoe." This fine bird has a beautiful crest and commands attention from its singular appearance and peculiar gestures. It is a common enough bird both in the eastern and western hemispheres.

Leopard.-References, Isa. 11:6⁶The wolf also shall dwell with the lamb, and the leopard shall lie down with the kid; and the calf and the young lion and the fatling together; and a little child shall lead them. (Isaiah 11:6); Dan. 7:6⁶After this I beheld, and lo another, like a leopard, which had upon the back of it four wings of a fowl; the beast had also four heads; and dominion was given to it. (Daniel 7:6), etc. This animal was at one time common enough in Palestine but it is now rarely to be met with. It is an apt symbol of the conquests of Alexander the Great (Dan. 7⁶After this I beheld, and lo another, like a leopard, which had upon the back of it four wings of a fowl; the beast had also four heads; and dominion was given to it. (Daniel 7:6)), in the celerity of his movements and sudden and unexpected nature of his attacks. The cat-like cunning of this animal in watching for its prey, its swiftness and cruelty, are finely depicted in the Prophets. The skin of this beautiful animal is highly prized and is the emblem of royalty in Africa till this day.

Leviathan.-References, Job 41:1¹Canst thou draw out leviathan with an hook? or his tongue with a cord which thou lettest down? (Job 41:1); Psa. 74:14¹⁴Thou brakest the heads of leviathan in pieces, and gavest him to be meat to the people inhabiting the wilderness. (Psalm 74:14), etc. The graphic description of this huge amphibious animal in the book of Job leaves no doubt that the crocodile is meant. It inhabits chiefly the rivers and banks of Africa, especially of the Nile, but has been found in the "Nhar Zurka," a river flowing through Samaria. The cruelty, strength, and other characteristics of this dreadful creature affords the Psalmist and the Prophets frequent illustrations in speaking of the great powers of Egypt, Assyria, etc.

Lice.-Reference, Ex. 8:16¹⁶And the Lord said unto Moses, Say unto Aaron, Stretch out thy rod, and smite the dust of the land, that it may become lice throughout all the land of Egypt. (Exodus 8:16). This insect is only mentioned as amongst the plagues on Egypt. In a warm country and to a cleanly people like the Egyptians this third infliction of Divine judgment must have caused them exquisite pain and distress.

Lion.-References, Gen. 49:9⁹Judah is a lion's whelp: from the prey, my son, thou art gone up: he stooped down, he couched as a lion, and as an old lion; who shall rouse him up? (Genesis 49:9); Psa. 22:21²¹Save me from the lion's mouth: for thou hast heard me from the horns of the unicorns. (Psalm 22:21), etc. This well-known animal was anciently common enough in Palestine. Throughout Syria it is now extinct. No wild animal is so often mentioned in Scripture as the "lion," and its majesty, strength, courage, roar, and other features are frequently spoken of in the Word. Satan because of his ferocity, the Babylonian Empire because of its strength and grandeur, and Christ because of His majesty and royal power are each represented by the lion.

Lizard.-Reference, Lev. 11:30³⁰And the ferret, and the chameleon, and the lizard, and the snail, and the mole. (Leviticus 11:30). This unclean reptile is only mentioned once in the Word of God. As there are many species of the lizard family abounding in the ruins and desolate places of the Holy Land the name is to be regarded here as a generic one, hence, all reptiles of the serpent kind were prohibited to Israel.

Locust.-References, Nah. 3:15¹⁵There shall the fire devour thee; the sword shall cut thee off, it shall eat thee up like the cankerworm: make thyself many as the cankerworm, make thyself many as the locusts. (Nahum 3:15); Joel 1:4⁴That which the palmerworm hath left hath the locust eaten; and that which the locust hath left hath the cankerworm eaten; and that which the cankerworm hath left hath the caterpiller eaten. (Joel 1:4), etc. The locust family is numerous and is a most frightful scourge in Eastern lands. They march in exact order and such are their numbers that no means or power known can arrest their devastating career. They turn in a few hours the most delightful and fruitful gardens into a desert. The locust is therefore a fitting emblem of Divine judgment.

Mole.-References, Isa. 2:20²⁰In that day a man shall cast his idols of silver, and his idols of gold, which they made each one for himself to worship, to the moles and to the bats; (Isaiah 2:20); Lev. 11:30³⁰And the ferret, and the chameleon, and the lizard, and the snail, and the mole. (Leviticus 11:30). This unclean animal is different in size and in some other respects from the English mole. Burying grounds and desolate places are the habitations of the Palestinean animal, hence the appropriateness of the Isaiah passage.

Moth.-References, Luke, 12:33; Job 13:28²⁸And he, as a rotten thing, consumeth, as a garment that is moth eaten. (Job 13:28), etc. The clothes' moth is the only one mentioned in Scripture and true to the derivation of the word it denotes the instability of man and the temporary tenure of all earthly possessions. This insect, especially in its larva state, is peculiarly destructive to clothing—a terrible trial in the East, where rich and very costly apparel are highly prized and carefully stored away.

Mouse.-References, Lev. 11:29²⁹These also shall be unclean unto you among the creeping things that creep upon the earth; the weasel, and the mouse, and the tortoise after his kind, (Leviticus 11:29); Isa.66:57, etc. Of the unclean animal known by this name there are several species. In these passages therefore the term is a generic one; but in 1 Sam. 6:5⁵Wherefore ye shall make images of your emerods, and images of your mice that mar the land; and ye shall give glory unto the God of Israel: peradventure he will lighten his hand from off you, and from off your gods, and from off your land. (1 Samuel 6:5), the field mouse is referred to as being one of the most destructive animals to growing crops.

Mule.-References, 2 Sam. 13:29²⁹And the servants of Absalom did unto Amnon as Absalom had commanded. Then all the king's sons arose, and every man gat him up upon his mule, and fled. (2 Samuel 13:29); Esther 8:10¹⁰And he wrote in the king Ahasuerus' name, and sealed it with the king's ring, and sent letters by posts on horseback, and riders on mules, camels, and young dromedaries: (Esther 8:10), etc. This domestic animal was the offspring of the horse and ass, but as the Israelites were not allowed to cross the breeds (Lev. 19:59), the mule was imported into the country and was ridden by kings and distinguished persons. The mule is a strong, stubborn, patient, hardy, sure-footed animal.

Ospray.-References, Lev. 11:13¹³And these are they which ye shall have in abomination among the fowls; they shall not be eaten, they are an abomination: the eagle, and the ossifrage, and the ospray, (Leviticus 11:13); Deut. 14:12¹²But these are they of which ye shall not eat: the eagle, and the ossifrage, and the ospray, (Deuteronomy 14:12). This unclean bird is termed by some "the fishing eagle." Its native element is the air, and yet it lives on fish, which it can see swimming on the surface of the water a long way off. Like the eagle to which it is closely allied it swoops down upon its prey and rarely fails in catching it.

Ossifrage.-References, Lev. 11:13¹³And these are they which ye shall have in abomination among the fowls; they shall not be eaten, they are an abomination: the eagle, and the ossifrage, and the ospray, (Leviticus 11:13); Deut. 14:12¹²But these are they of which ye shall not eat: the eagle, and the ossifrage, and the ospray, (Deuteronomy 14:12). This unclean bird is very large but not numerous. It inhabits the mountainous parts of Syria, and, like the eagle, swoops down upon its prey, seizing much larger animals than itself and instantly tearing them in pieces.

Ostrich.-References, Lev. 11:16¹⁶And the owl, and the night hawk, and the cuckow, and the hawk after his kind, (Leviticus 11:16); Job 39:13-18¹³Gavest thou the goodly wings unto the peacocks? or wings and feathers unto the ostrich? ¹⁴Which leaveth her eggs in the earth, and warmeth them in dust, ¹⁵And forgetteth that the foot may crush them, or that the wild beast may break them. ¹⁶She is hardened against her young ones, as though they were not hers: her labor is in vain without fear; ¹⁷Because God hath deprived her of wisdom, neither hath he imparted to her understanding. ¹⁸What time she lifteth up herself on high, she scorneth the horse and his rider. (Job 39:13‑18), etc. This immense bird although provided with wings cannot fly, but can out-run the fleetest horse. We need not a naturalist's description of this interesting bird as Job furnishes us with an accurate account. The cruelty of the ostrich in forsaking her young (Lam. 4:3³Even the sea monsters draw out the breast, they give suck to their young ones: the daughter of my people is become cruel, like the ostriches in the wilderness. (Lamentations 4:3)), the beauty of her plumage, her mournful cry, her swiftness of flight and other features are employed in the illustration of moral truth and lessons to us. In several instances where "owl" is in the text as in Isa. 13:21²¹But wild beasts of the desert shall lie there; and their houses shall be full of doleful creatures; and owls shall dwell there, and satyrs shall dance there. (Isaiah 13:21), Lev. 11:16¹⁶And the owl, and the night hawk, and the cuckow, and the hawk after his kind, (Leviticus 11:16), the margin rightly reads "ostrich."

Owl.-References, Lev. 11:16¹⁶And the owl, and the night hawk, and the cuckow, and the hawk after his kind, (Leviticus 11:16); Isa. 34:54, etc. What particular bird is referred to cannot with certainty be determined. That it was an unclean bird uttering a peculiar screech is evident from the passages where the word occurs but in several instances "ostrich" should be substituted.

Ox.-References, Isa. 1:3³The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his master's crib: but Israel doth not know, my people doth not consider. (Isaiah 1:3); Job 1:3³His substance also was seven thousand sheep, and three thousand camels, and five hundred yoke of oxen, and five hundred she asses, and a very great household; so that this man was the greatest of all the men of the east. (Job 1:3), etc. This well-known agricultural animal was one exceedingly strong and used for sacrifice, for draft work, and for food. The ox constituted an important part of Eastern wealth.

Palmer-worm.-References, Joel 1:4⁴That which the palmerworm hath left hath the locust eaten; and that which the locust hath left hath the cankerworm eaten; and that which the cankerworm hath left hath the caterpiller eaten. (Joel 1:4); Amos 4:9⁹I have smitten you with blasting and mildew: when your gardens and your vineyards and your fig trees and your olive trees increased, the palmerworm devoured them: yet have ye not returned unto me, saith the Lord. (Amos 4:9). This terribly destructive insect is much dreaded in the East. It is one of the locust species, but in its larva state, when it is fully as destructive to vegetation as when full winged. The locust in the various stages of its existence commits the most frightful ravages upon some of the fairest portions of the earth.

Partridge. -References, Jer. 17:11¹¹As the partridge sitteth on eggs, and hatcheth them not; so he that getteth riches, and not by right, shall leave them in the midst of his days, and at his end shall be a fool. (Jeremiah 17:11); 1 Sam. 26:20²⁰Now therefore, let not my blood fall to the earth before the face of the Lord: for the king of Israel is come out to seek a flea, as when one doth hunt a partridge in the mountains. (1 Samuel 26:20). The habit of this bird in laying her eggs on the ground and her attempts to hatch them there is noticed by the Prophet Jeremiah. Thousands of eggs are thus procured and the bird itself is easily caught; that too, and the manner of doing it, are noted in 1 Sam. 26:20²⁰Now therefore, let not my blood fall to the earth before the face of the Lord: for the king of Israel is come out to seek a flea, as when one doth hunt a partridge in the mountains. (1 Samuel 26:20), etc.

Peacock.-References, I King 10:22; 2 Chron. 9:21²¹For the king's ships went to Tarshish with the servants of Huram: every three years once came the ships of Tarshish bringing gold, and silver, ivory, and apes, and peacocks. (2 Chronicles 9:21). This beautiful bird was imported into Palestine from India every three years by the ships of Solomon. On the same occasions apes were brought to the king for their playful antics, as the peacocks were for their rare beauty.

Pelican.-References, Lev. 11:18¹⁸And the swan, and the pelican, and the gier eagle, (Leviticus 11:18); Psa. 102:6⁶I am like a pelican of the wilderness: I am like an owl of the desert. (Psalm 102:6), etc. This well-known bird was unclean under the law and its flesh forbidden as food. It is generally associated with solitary birds who frequent ruins and desolate places far removed from the haunts of man. Its love of solitude is referred to in Psa. 102:6⁶I am like a pelican of the wilderness: I am like an owl of the desert. (Psalm 102:6). In two instances where cormorant is in the text, read pelican-Zeph. 2:14; Isa. 34:11¹¹But the cormorant and the bittern shall possess it; the owl also and the raven shall dwell in it: and he shall stretch out upon it the line of confusion, and the stones of emptiness. (Isaiah 34:11).

Pygarg.-Reference, Deut. 14:5⁵The hart, and the roebuck, and the fallow deer, and the wild goat, and the pygarg, and the wild ox, and the chamois. (Deuteronomy 14:5). This clean animal is of the antelope species. Some have identified the "pygarg" with the beautiful antelope known as the "addox," an inhabitant of Northern Africa, and from the derivation of the Hebrew word it may be so. The margin reads bison, which is incorrect.

Quail.-References, Ex. 16:11-13¹¹And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying, ¹²I have heard the murmurings of the children of Israel: speak unto them, saying, At even ye shall eat flesh, and in the morning ye shall be filled with bread; and ye shall know that I am the Lord your God. ¹³And it came to pass, that at even the quails came up, and covered the camp: and in the morning the dew lay round about the host. (Exodus 16:11‑13); Num. 11:31, 32³¹And there went forth a wind from the Lord, and brought quails from the sea, and let them fall by the camp, as it were a day's journey on this side, and as it were a day's journey on the other side, round about the camp, and as it were two cubits high upon the face of the earth. ³²And the people stood up all that day, and all that night, and all the next day, and they gathered the quails: he that gathered least gathered ten homers: and they spread them all abroad for themselves round about the camp. (Numbers 11:31‑32), etc. This bird is several times mentioned in the Old Testament, but always in reference to the miraculous supply afforded to the Israelites on two separate occasions. The flesh of the "quail" is greatly prized in Syria and many thousands of them are annually sold in the Jewish markets. They always fly in the direction of the wind and in flocks so numerous as to darken the sky, and as their wings are short and not strong, they are easily exhausted, and in their yearly return across the Arabian desert thousands of them are captured and are prepared for food just as Israel did in the wilderness.

Ram.-References, Ex. 29:26²⁶And thou shalt take the breast of the ram of Aaron's consecration, and wave it for a wave offering before the Lord: and it shall be thy part. (Exodus 29:26); Gen. 15:9⁹And he said unto him, Take me an heifer of three years old, and a she goat of three years old, and a ram of three years old, and a turtledove, and a young pigeon. (Genesis 15:9), etc. This clean animal was largely used in sacrifice. It was the consecration animal (Ex. 29⁹And thou shalt gird them with girdles, Aaron and his sons, and put the bonnets on them: and the priest's office shall be theirs for a perpetual statute: and thou shalt consecrate Aaron and his sons. (Exodus 29:9) and Lev. 8⁹And he put the mitre upon his head; also upon the mitre, even upon his forefront, did he put the golden plate, the holy crown; as the Lord commanded Moses. (Leviticus 8:9)). Its horns were formed into trumpets (Josh. 6⁹And the armed men went before the priests that blew with the trumpets, and the rereward came after the ark, the priests going on, and blowing with the trumpets. (Joshua 6:9)), and its skin dyed red served as a covering for the tabernacle (Ex. 25:5⁵And rams' skins dyed red, and badgers' skins, and shittim wood, (Exodus 25:5)), etc.

Raven.-References, Gen. 8:7⁷And he sent forth a raven, which went forth to and fro, until the waters were dried up from off the earth. (Genesis 8:7); Job 38:41⁴¹Who provideth for the raven his food? when his young ones cry unto God, they wander for lack of meat. (Job 38:41), etc. This unclean bird is well known. The various characteristics ascribed to it and its general habits are true to the letter. God's care in using this bird of prey to supply His servant and prophet Elijah with food (1 Kings 17:6⁶And the ravens brought him bread and flesh in the morning, and bread and flesh in the evening; and he drank of the brook. (1 Kings 17:6)), and the Divine care in feeding even these most unclean of birds (Luke 12:24²⁴Consider the ravens: for they neither sow nor reap; which neither have storehouse nor barn; and God feedeth them: how much more are ye better than the fowls? (Luke 12:24)), are beautifully illustrative of God's goodness towards and over all His creatures.

Roe.-References, Sol. 2:7⁷I charge you, O ye daughters of Jerusalem, by the roes, and by the hinds of the field, that ye stir not up, nor awake my love, till he please. (Song of Solomon 2:7); Deut. 12:15¹⁵Notwithstanding thou mayest kill and eat flesh in all thy gates, whatsoever thy soul lusteth after, according to the blessing of the Lord thy God which he hath given thee: the unclean and the clean may eat thereof, as of the roebuck, and as of the hart. (Deuteronomy 12:15). This clean animal, whose flesh was ever a delicacy, is one of the most beautiful of horned animals. The roebuck or gazelle, for they are identical, is still found in Palestine, and the sacred writers frequently refer to the beauty, swiftness, elegance, and other traits of this species of deer.

Scorpion.-References, Deut. 8:15¹⁵Who led thee through that great and terrible wilderness, wherein were fiery serpents, and scorpions, and drought, where there was no water; who brought thee forth water out of the rock of flint; (Deuteronomy 8:15); Luke 11:12¹²Or if he shall ask an egg, will he offer him a scorpion? (Luke 11:12). This reptile is very common in the East and wary travelers are careful where they sit as scorpions are found under loose stones, in ruins, etc., and when disturbed sting sharply and severely. They are lobster-like in appearance, and their poison is secreted in their tails, which they strike with. Excruciating pain is the result, and oftentimes death, hence the allusion in Rev. 9:5,10⁵And to them it was given that they should not kill them, but that they should be tormented five months: and their torment was as the torment of a scorpion, when he striketh a man. (Revelation 9:5)
¹⁰And they had tails like unto scorpions, and there were stings in their tails: and their power was to hurt men five months. (Revelation 9:10).

Serpents.-References, Prov. 30:19¹⁹The way of an eagle in the air; the way of a serpent upon a rock; the way of a ship in the midst of the sea; and the way of a man with a maid. (Proverbs 30:19); Gen. 3¹⁹In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread, till thou return unto the ground; for out of it wast thou taken: for dust thou art, and unto dust shalt thou return. (Genesis 3:19), etc. The serpent is the chosen symbol of subtlety and guile. There are so many kinds of serpents that to enumerate them here would be apart from our object. Fully 600 species are known to naturalists.

Sheep.-References, Isa. 53:7⁷He was oppressed, and he was afflicted, yet he opened not his mouth: he is brought as a lamb to the slaughter, and as a sheep before her shearers is dumb, so he openeth not his mouth. (Isaiah 53:7): John 10⁷Then said Jesus unto them again, Verily, verily, I say unto you, I am the door of the sheep. (John 10:7), etc. The first occupation mentioned in Scripture is that of shepherd and the first animal the sheep. There is no animal so frequently spoken of in the Bible, and none which is so full in illustrating God's gracious care, and generally of moral character. For sacrifice, for food, and as wealth the sheep occupies the principal place amongst animals in Scripture, and this is not to be wondered at, for Palestine is preeminently a pastoral country. The occupation of shepherd was anciently an honored and highly respected one; the King of Moab tended his own sheep, so does Jehovah (Psa. 23¹<<A Psalm of David.>> The earth is the Lord's, and the fulness thereof; the world, and they that dwell therein. (Psalm 24:1)), and so does our blessed Lord (1 Peter 5:4⁴And when the chief Shepherd shall appear, ye shall receive a crown of glory that fadeth not away. (1 Peter 5:4)).

Snail.-References, Lev. 11:30³⁰And the ferret, and the chameleon, and the lizard, and the snail, and the mole. (Leviticus 11:30); Psa. 58:8⁸As a snail which melteth, let every one of them pass away: like the untimely birth of a woman, that they may not see the sun. (Psalm 58:8). These are the only places where the word occurs. In the one passage it is classed amongst the unclean and in the other the nasty slimy trail of this slow-going creature is referred to.

Sparrow.-References, Psa. 84:3³Yea, the sparrow hath found an house, and the swallow a nest for herself, where she may lay her young, even thine altars, O Lord of hosts, my King, and my God. (Psalm 84:3); Matt. 10:29²⁹Are not two sparrows sold for a farthing? and one of them shall not fall on the ground without your Father. (Matthew 10:29), etc. This is the most common small bird of any known and as there are upwards of 100 different kinds in Palestine alone it is believed that as a rule the word must be taken as meaning small birds in general. They are the commonest of God's creatures, yet objects of Divine care and regard.

Spider.-References, Job 8:14¹⁴Whose hope shall be cut off, and whose trust shall be a spider's web. (Job 8:14); Pro. 30:28²⁸The spider taketh hold with her hands, and is in kings' palaces. (Proverbs 30:28). The plans and devices of the wicked are compared to the spider's web (Isa. 59:5⁵They hatch cockatrice' eggs, and weave the spider's web: he that eateth of their eggs dieth, and that which is crushed breaketh out into a viper. (Isaiah 59:5)). This ingenious little insect weaves its web with consummate skill, which is all the more remarkable considering its fragile character.

Stork.-References, Jer. 8:7⁷Yea, the stork in the heaven knoweth her appointed times; and the turtle and the crane and the swallow observe the time of their coming; but my people know not the judgment of the Lord. (Jeremiah 8:7); Zech. 5:9⁹Then lifted I up mine eyes, and looked, and, behold, there came out two women, and the wind was in their wings; for they had wings like the wings of a stork: and they lifted up the ephah between the earth and the heaven. (Zechariah 5:9), etc. This large bird was forbidden to the Jews as food. There are two kinds, black and white, both abounding in Palestine. The regularity of her return to her old haunts, and the etymological signification of the word-implying tenderness and filial affection—has caused this well-known bird to be warmly welcomed, and in some countries actually protected by the law. It is also a useful sanitary bird.

Swallow.-References, Psa. 84:3³Yea, the sparrow hath found an house, and the swallow a nest for herself, where she may lay her young, even thine altars, O Lord of hosts, my King, and my God. (Psalm 84:3); Prov. 26:2²As the bird by wandering, as the swallow by flying, so the curse causeless shall not come. (Proverbs 26:2), etc. It is difficult to particularly identify the smaller birds which are much more plentiful in Palestine than with us. No doubt a group of small migratory birds is here intended, birds almost ever on the wing moreover. As the sparrow is the most common of birds, the swallow is the most restless.

Swan.-References, Lev. 11:18¹⁸And the swan, and the pelican, and the gier eagle, (Leviticus 11:18); Deut. 14:16¹⁶The little owl, and the great owl, and the swan, (Deuteronomy 14:16). This beautiful aquatic bird was ranked among the unclean birds. It little matters whether the modern swan is the one meant in the passage as undoubtedly a water bird is referred to.

Swine.-References, Deut. 14:8⁸And the swine, because it divideth the hoof, yet cheweth not the cud, it is unclean unto you: ye shall not eat of their flesh, nor touch their dead carcase. (Deuteronomy 14:8); Isa. 65:4⁴Which remain among the graves, and lodge in the monuments, which eat swine's flesh, and broth of abominable things is in their vessels; (Isaiah 65:4), etc. This most filthy and unclean of all animals was an abhorrence to the Jews. Christ upheld the majesty of the law by granting permission to the expelled demons to enter the herd of swine and destroy them, for these animals ought not to have been kept within the territory of Palestine. A swine herd is a degrading employment (Luke 15:15¹⁵And he went and joined himself to a citizen of that country; and he sent him into his fields to feed swine. (Luke 15:15)), and the filthy habits of the sow are made to illustrate a deeply important truth in 2 Peter 2:22²²But it is happened unto them according to the true proverb, The dog is turned to his own vomit again; and the sow that was washed to her wallowing in the mire. (2 Peter 2:22).

Tortoise.-Reference, Lev. 11:29²⁹These also shall be unclean unto you among the creeping things that creep upon the earth; the weasel, and the mouse, and the tortoise after his kind, (Leviticus 11:29). The amphibious animal known as the tortoise is common in Palestine, and its flesh and eggs are equally sought after for food. It is generally understood that some species of " lizard " is meant in the passage in Leviticus.

Unicorn.-References, Psa. 22:21²¹Save me from the lion's mouth: for thou hast heard me from the horns of the unicorns. (Psalm 22:21); Isa. 34:7⁷And the unicorns shall come down with them, and the bullocks with the bulls; and their land shall be soaked with blood, and their dust made fat with fatness. (Isaiah 34:7), etc. There are at least seven distinct passages where this animal is named, and it seems to us throwing contempt upon the sacred pages to assert that, because the unicorn cannot now be identified with any existing species, therefore it was a fabulous creature. Not so; it was an animal well-known in early times, at least to Israel. This two-horned creature is noted for its size, strength, ferocity, and untamableness, for which see the several passages.

Vulture.-References, Lev. 11:14¹⁴And the vulture, and the kite after his kind; (Leviticus 11:14); Deut. 14:13¹³And the glede, and the kite, and the vulture after his kind, (Deuteronomy 14:13), etc. There are several species comprehended under the common name "vulture," all unclean under the Levitical law. This bird of prey feeds upon the carcass of man or beast, and frequently follows a victorious army in its march, pouncing upon the unburied slain. "There is a path which the vulture's eye hash not seen" (Job 28:7⁷There is a path which no fowl knoweth, and which the vulture's eye hath not seen: (Job 28:7)). The sharp, keen vision of this rapacious bird is several times alluded to in the Scriptures.

Weasel.-Reference, Lev. 11:29²⁹These also shall be unclean unto you among the creeping things that creep upon the earth; the weasel, and the mouse, and the tortoise after his kind, (Leviticus 11:29). Only once named in Scripture, and then as amongst the prohibited animals. The common weasel is abundant in Palestine.

Whale.-References, Job 7:12¹²Am I a sea, or a whale, that thou settest a watch over me? (Job 7:12); Matt. 12:40⁴⁰For as Jonas was three days and three nights in the whale's belly; so shall the Son of man be three days and three nights in the heart of the earth. (Matthew 12:40), etc. The Hebrew word does not necessarily mean only the sea monster known as the whale, but the largest size of marine animals.

Wolf.-References, Gen. 49:27²⁷Benjamin shall ravin as a wolf: in the morning he shall devour the prey, and at night he shall divide the spoil. (Genesis 49:27); John 10:12¹²But he that is an hireling, and not the shepherd, whose own the sheep are not, seeth the wolf coming, and leaveth the sheep, and fleeth: and the wolf catcheth them, and scattereth the sheep. (John 10:12), etc. This well-known wild beast is still met with in Palestine. The dangerous and bloodthirsty character of the wolf, ravening during the night in packs is several times alluded to in Scripture. The wolf is also the terror of the shepherd keeping lonely watch over his flock. Oppressors and devourers of God's people, whether of Israel or the Church, are compared to wolves.

Worm.-References, Isa. 66:24²⁴And they shall go forth, and look upon the carcases of the men that have transgressed against me: for their worm shall not die, neither shall their fire be quenched; and they shall be an abhorring unto all flesh. (Isaiah 66:24); Acts 12:23²³And immediately the angel of the Lord smote him, because he gave not God the glory: and he was eaten of worms, and gave up the ghost. (Acts 12:23), etc. There are many kinds of worms, some bred by putrid matter, as exampled in the awful end of Herod. The "worm" is the figure of endless anguish (Mark 9²³Jesus said unto him, If thou canst believe, all things are possible to him that believeth. (Mark 9:23)); it is also the figure of abject contempt and utter humiliation, as in the Psalms and book of Job.

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